llvm-capstone/lld/COFF

The PE/COFF Linker

This directory contains a linker for Windows operating system. Because the fundamental design of this port is different from the other ports of LLD, this port is separated to this directory.

The linker is command-line compatible with MSVC linker and is generally 2x faster than that. It can be used to link real-world programs such as LLD itself or Clang, or even web browsers which are probably the largest open-source programs for Windows.

Overall Design

This is a list of important data types in this linker.

• SymbolBody

  SymbolBody is a class for symbols. They may be created for symbols in object files or in archive file headers. The linker may create them out of nothing.

  There are mainly three types of SymbolBodies: Defined, Undefined, or Lazy. Defined symbols are for all symbols that are considered as "resolved", including real defined symbols, COMDAT symbols, common symbols, absolute symbols, linker-created symbols, etc. Undefined symbols are for undefined symbols, which need to be replaced by Defined symbols by the resolver. Lazy symbols represent symbols we found in archive file headers -- which can turn into Defined symbols if we read archieve members, but we haven't done that yet.

• Symbol

  Symbol is a pointer to a SymbolBody. There's only one Symbol for each unique symbol name (this uniqueness is guaranteed by the symbol table). Because SymbolBodies are created for each file independently, there can be many SymbolBodies for the same name. Thus, the relationship between Symbols and SymbolBodies is 1:N.

  The resolver keeps the Symbol's pointer to always point to the "best" SymbolBody. Pointer mutation is the resolve operation in this linker.

  SymbolBodies have pointers to their Symbols. That means you can always find the best SymbolBody from any SymbolBody by following pointers twice. This structure makes it very easy to find replacements for symbols. For example, if you have an Undefined SymbolBody, you can find a Defined SymbolBody for that symbol just by going to its Symbol and then to SymbolBody, assuming the resolver have successfully resolved all undefined symbols.

• Chunk

  Chunk represents a chunk of data that will occupy space in an output. Each regular section becomes a chunk. Chunks created for common or BSS symbols are not backed by sections. The linker may create chunks out of nothing to append additional data to an output.

  Chunks know about their size, how to copy their data to mmap'ed outputs, and how to apply relocations to them. Specifically, section-based chunks know how to read relocation tables and how to apply them.

• SymbolTable

  SymbolTable is basically a hash table from strings to Symbols, with a logic to resolve symbol conflicts. It resolves conflicts by symbol type. For example, if we add Undefined and Defined symbols, the symbol table will keep the latter. If we add Defined and Lazy symbols, it will keep the former. If we add Lazy and Undefined, it will keep the former, but it will also trigger the Lazy symbol to load the archive member to actually resolve the symbol.

• OutputSection

  OutputSection is a container of Chunks. A Chunk belongs to at most one OutputSection.

There are mainly three actors in this linker.

• InputFile

  InputFile is a superclass of file readers. We have a different subclass for each input file type, such as regular object file, archive file, etc. They are responsible for creating and owning SymbolBodies and Chunks.

• Writer

  The writer is responsible for writing file headers and Chunks to a file. It creates OutputSections, put all Chunks into them, assign unique, non-overlapping addresses and file offsets to them, and then write them down to a file.

• Driver

  The linking process is drived by the driver. The driver

  • processes command line options,
  • creates a symbol table,
  • creates an InputFile for each input file and put all symbols in it into the symbol table,
  • checks if there's no remaining undefined symbols,
  • creates a writer,
  • and passes the symbol table to the writer to write the result to a file.

Performance

It's generally 2x faster than MSVC link.exe. It takes 3.5 seconds to self-host on my Xeon 2580 machine. MSVC linker takes 7.0 seconds to link the same executable. The resulting output is 65MB. The old LLD is buggy that it produces 120MB executable for some reason, and it takes 30 seconds to do that.

We believe the performance difference comes from simplification and optimizations we made to the new port. Notable differences are listed below.

• Reduced number of relocation table reads

  In the old design, relocation tables are read from beginning to construct graphs because they consist of graph edges. In the new design, they are not read until we actually apply relocations.

  This simplification has two benefits. One is that we don't create additional objects for relocations but instead consume relocation tables directly. The other is that it reduces number of relocation entries we have to read, because we won't read relocations for dead-stripped COMDAT sections. Large C++ programs tend to consist of lots of COMDAT sections. In the old design, the time to process relocation table is linear to size of input. In this new model, it's linear to size of output.

• Reduced number of symbol table lookup

  Symbol table lookup can be a heavy operation because number of symbols can be very large and each symbol name can be very long (think of C++ mangled symbols -- time to compute a hash value for a string is linear to the length.)

  We look up the symbol table exactly only once for each symbol in the new design. This is I believe the minimum possible number. This is achieved by the separation of Symbol and SymbolBody. Once you get a pointer to a Symbol by looking up the symbol table, you can always get the latest symbol resolution result by just dereferencing a pointer. (I'm not sure if the idea is new to the linker. At least, all other linkers I've investigated so far seem to look up hash tables or sets more than once for each new symbol, but I may be wrong.)

• Reduced number of file visits

  The symbol table implements the Windows linker semantics. We treat the symbol table as a bucket of all known symbols, including symbols in archive file headers. We put all symbols into one bucket as we visit new files. That means we visit each file only once.

  This is different from the Unix linker semantics, in which we only keep undefined symbols and visit each file one by one until we resolve all undefined symbols. In the Unix model, we have to visit archive files many times if there are circular dependencies between archives.

• Avoiding creating additional objects or copying data

  The data structures described in the previous section are all thin wrappers for classes that LLVM libObject provides. We avoid copying data from libObject's objects to our objects. We read much less data than before. For example, we don't read symbol values until we apply relocations because these values are not relevant to symbol resolution. Again, COMDAT symbols may be discarded during symbol resolution, so reading their attributes too early could result in a waste. We use underlying objects directly where doing so makes sense.

Parallelism

The abovementioned data structures are also chosen with multi-threading in mind. It should relatively be easy to make the symbol table a concurrent hash map, so that we let multiple workers work on symbol table concurrently. Symbol resolution in this design is a single pointer mutation, which allows the resolver work concurrently in a lock-free manner using atomic pointer compare-and-swap.

It should also be easy to apply relocations and write chunks concurrently.

We created an experimental multi-threaded linker using the Microsoft ConcRT concurrency library, and it was able to link itself in 0.5 seconds, so we think the design is promising.

Link-Time Optimization

LTO is implemented by handling LLVM bitcode files as object files. The linker resolves symbols in bitcode files normally. If all symbols are successfully resolved, it then calls an LLVM libLTO function with all bitcode files to convert them to one big regular COFF file. Finally, the linker replaces bitcode symbols with COFF symbols, so that we can link the input files as if they were in the native format from the beginning.

The details are described in this document. http://llvm.org/docs/LinkTimeOptimization.html

Glossary

• RVA

  Short for Relative Virtual Address.

  Windows executables or DLLs are not position-independent; they are linked against a fixed address called an image base. RVAs are offsets from an image base.

  Default image bases are 0x140000000 for executables and 0x18000000 for DLLs. For example, when we are creating an executable, we assume that the executable will be loaded at address 0x140000000 by the loader, so we apply relocations accordingly. Result texts and data will contain raw absolute addresses.

• VA

  Short for Virtual Address. Equivalent to RVA + image base. It is rarely used. We almost always use RVAs instead.

• Base relocations

  Relocation information for the loader. If the loader decides to map an executable or a DLL to a different address than their image bases, it fixes up binaries using information contained in the base relocation table. A base relocation table consists of a list of locations containing addresses. The loader adds a difference between RVA and actual load address to all locations listed there.

  Note that this run-time relocation mechanism is much simpler than ELF. There's no PLT or GOT. Images are relocated as a whole just by shifting entire images in memory by some offsets. Although doing this breaks text sharing, I think this mechanism is not actually bad on today's computers.

• ICF

  Short for Identical COMDAT Folding.

  ICF is an optimization to reduce output size by merging COMDAT sections by not only their names but by their contents. If two COMDAT sections happen to have the same metadata, actual contents and relocations, they are merged by ICF. It is known as an effective technique, and it usually reduces C++ program's size by a few percent or more.

  Note that this is not entirely sound optimization. C/C++ require different functions have different addresses. If a program depends on that property, it would fail at runtime. However, that's not really an issue on Windows because MSVC link.exe enabled the optimization by default. As long as your program works with the linker's default settings, your program should be safe with ICF.