diff --git a/packages/ai/src/protocols/anthropic-messages.ts b/packages/ai/src/protocols/anthropic-messages.ts
index 7f2c537b74e..5872fb71112 100644
--- a/packages/ai/src/protocols/anthropic-messages.ts
+++ b/packages/ai/src/protocols/anthropic-messages.ts
@@ -438,7 +438,8 @@ const lowerMedia = Effect.fn("AnthropicMessages.lowerMedia")(function* (part: Me
 // Tool results may carry structured text, images, and documents. Keep media as provider-native
 // content instead of JSON-stringifying base64 into a prompt string.
 const lowerToolResultContentItem = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (item: Tool.Content) {
-  if (item.type === "text") return { type: "text" as const, text: item.text } satisfies AnthropicTextBlock
+  if (item.type === "text")
+    return { type: "text" as const, text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(item.text) } satisfies AnthropicTextBlock
   return yield* lowerMedia({ type: "media", mediaType: item.mime, data: item.uri, filename: item.name })
 })
 
@@ -503,7 +504,7 @@ const lowerNativeSystemUpdate = Effect.fn("AnthropicMessages.lowerNativeSystemUp
     role: "system" as const,
     content: content.map((part) => ({
       type: "text" as const,
-      text: part.text,
+      text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text),
       cache_control: cacheControl(breakpoints, part.cache),
     })),
   }
@@ -524,7 +525,11 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("AnthropicMessages.lowerMessages")(function* (
         continue
       }
       const part = yield* ProviderShared.wrappedSystemUpdate("Anthropic Messages", message)
-      const block = { type: "text" as const, text: part.text, cache_control: cacheControl(breakpoints, part.cache) }
+      const block = {
+        type: "text" as const,
+        text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text),
+        cache_control: cacheControl(breakpoints, part.cache),
+      }
       const previous = messages.at(-1)
       if (previous?.role === "user")
         messages[messages.length - 1] = { role: "user", content: [...previous.content, block] }
@@ -536,7 +541,7 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("AnthropicMessages.lowerMessages")(function* (
       const content: AnthropicUserBlock[] = []
       for (const part of message.content) {
         if (part.type === "text") {
-          content.push({ type: "text", text: part.text, cache_control: cacheControl(breakpoints, part.cache) })
+          content.push({ type: "text", text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text), cache_control: cacheControl(breakpoints, part.cache) })
           continue
         }
         if (part.type === "media") {
@@ -553,7 +558,7 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("AnthropicMessages.lowerMessages")(function* (
       const content: AnthropicAssistantBlock[] = []
       for (const part of message.content) {
         if (part.type === "text") {
-          content.push({ type: "text", text: part.text, cache_control: cacheControl(breakpoints, part.cache) })
+          content.push({ type: "text", text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text), cache_control: cacheControl(breakpoints, part.cache) })
           continue
         }
         if (part.type === "reasoning") {
@@ -566,7 +571,11 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("AnthropicMessages.lowerMessages")(function* (
             content.push({ type: "redacted_thinking", data: redactedData })
             continue
           }
-          content.push({ type: "thinking", thinking: part.text, signature })
+          content.push({
+            type: "thinking",
+            thinking: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text),
+            signature,
+          })
           continue
         }
         if (part.type === "tool-call") {
@@ -659,7 +668,7 @@ const fromRequest = Effect.fn("AnthropicMessages.fromRequest")(function* (reques
       ? undefined
       : request.system.map((part) => ({
           type: "text" as const,
-          text: part.text,
+          text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text),
           cache_control: cacheControl(breakpoints, part.cache),
         }))
   const messages = yield* lowerMessages(request, breakpoints)
diff --git a/packages/ai/src/protocols/bedrock-converse.ts b/packages/ai/src/protocols/bedrock-converse.ts
index efe3a3ba5dc..76bc7d9070a 100644
--- a/packages/ai/src/protocols/bedrock-converse.ts
+++ b/packages/ai/src/protocols/bedrock-converse.ts
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ const lowerToolResultContent = Effect.fn("BedrockConverse.lowerToolResultContent
   const content: Array<Schema.Schema.Type<typeof BedrockToolResultContentItem>> = []
   for (const item of part.result.value) {
     if (item.type === "text") {
-      content.push({ text: item.text })
+      content.push({ text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(item.text) })
       continue
     }
     const media = yield* BedrockMedia.lower({
@@ -326,7 +326,7 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("BedrockConverse.lowerMessages")(function* (
   for (const message of request.messages) {
     if (message.role === "system") {
       const part = yield* ProviderShared.wrappedSystemUpdate("Bedrock Converse", message)
-      const content = textWithCache(breakpoints, part.text, part.cache)
+      const content = textWithCache(breakpoints, ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text), part.cache)
       const previous = messages.at(-1)
       if (previous?.role === "user")
         messages[messages.length - 1] = { role: "user", content: [...previous.content, ...content] }
@@ -340,7 +340,7 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("BedrockConverse.lowerMessages")(function* (
         if (!ProviderShared.supportsContent(part, ["text", "media"]))
           return yield* ProviderShared.unsupportedContent("Bedrock Converse", "user", ["text", "media"])
         if (part.type === "text") {
-          content.push(...textWithCache(breakpoints, part.text, part.cache))
+          content.push(...textWithCache(breakpoints, ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text), part.cache))
           continue
         }
         if (part.type === "media") {
@@ -365,7 +365,7 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("BedrockConverse.lowerMessages")(function* (
             "tool-call",
           ])
         if (part.type === "text") {
-          content.push(...textWithCache(breakpoints, part.text, part.cache))
+          content.push(...textWithCache(breakpoints, ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text), part.cache))
           continue
         }
         if (part.type === "reasoning") {
@@ -375,7 +375,7 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("BedrockConverse.lowerMessages")(function* (
             content.push({ reasoningContent: { redactedContent: redactedData } })
             continue
           }
-          content.push({ reasoningContent: { reasoningText: { text: part.text, signature } } })
+          content.push({ reasoningContent: { reasoningText: { text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text), signature } } })
           continue
         }
         if (part.type === "tool-call") {
@@ -409,7 +409,8 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("BedrockConverse.lowerMessages")(function* (
 const lowerSystem = (
   breakpoints: BedrockCache.Breakpoints,
   system: ReadonlyArray<LLMRequest["system"][number]>,
-): BedrockSystemBlock[] => system.flatMap((part) => textWithCache(breakpoints, part.text, part.cache))
+): BedrockSystemBlock[] =>
+  system.flatMap((part) => textWithCache(breakpoints, ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text), part.cache))
 
 const fromRequest = Effect.fn("BedrockConverse.fromRequest")(function* (request: LLMRequest) {
   const toolChoice = request.toolChoice ? yield* lowerToolChoice(request.toolChoice) : undefined
diff --git a/packages/ai/src/protocols/gemini.ts b/packages/ai/src/protocols/gemini.ts
index 3ccf8eafcae..5ded5ced2c8 100644
--- a/packages/ai/src/protocols/gemini.ts
+++ b/packages/ai/src/protocols/gemini.ts
@@ -273,7 +273,7 @@ const lowerToolConfig = (toolChoice: NonNullable<LLMRequest["toolChoice"]>) =>
   })
 
 const lowerUserPart = Effect.fn("Gemini.lowerUserPart")(function* (part: TextPart | MediaPart) {
-  if (part.type === "text") return { text: part.text }
+  if (part.type === "text") return { text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text) }
   const media = ProviderShared.normalizeMedia(part)
   return { inlineData: { mimeType: media.mime, data: media.base64 } }
 })
@@ -335,11 +335,11 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("Gemini.lowerMessages")(function* (request: LLMR
         if (!ProviderShared.supportsContent(part, ["text", "reasoning", "tool-call"]))
           return yield* ProviderShared.unsupportedContent("Gemini", "assistant", ["text", "reasoning", "tool-call"])
         if (part.type === "text") {
-          parts.push({ text: part.text, thoughtSignature: thoughtSignature(part.providerMetadata) })
+          parts.push({ text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text), thoughtSignature: thoughtSignature(part.providerMetadata) })
           continue
         }
         if (part.type === "reasoning") {
-          parts.push({ text: part.text, thought: true, thoughtSignature: thoughtSignature(part.providerMetadata) })
+          parts.push({ text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text), thought: true, thoughtSignature: thoughtSignature(part.providerMetadata) })
           continue
         }
         if (part.type === "tool-call") {
@@ -379,7 +379,7 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("Gemini.lowerMessages")(function* (request: LLMR
         continue
       }
       const content: ReadonlyArray<Tool.Content> = part.result.value
-      const text = content.filter((item) => item.type === "text").map((item) => item.text)
+      const text = content.filter((item) => item.type === "text").map((item) => ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(item.text))
       const media: GeminiInlineDataPart[] = []
       for (const item of content) {
         if (item.type === "text") continue
diff --git a/packages/ai/src/protocols/open-responses.ts b/packages/ai/src/protocols/open-responses.ts
index 1dd449319eb..4ebc81157e1 100644
--- a/packages/ai/src/protocols/open-responses.ts
+++ b/packages/ai/src/protocols/open-responses.ts
@@ -405,7 +405,7 @@ const lowerReasoning = (part: ReasoningPart, providerMetadataKey: string): OpenR
   return {
     type: "reasoning",
     id,
-    summary: part.text.length > 0 ? [{ type: "summary_text", text: part.text }] : [],
+    summary: part.text.length > 0 ? [{ type: "summary_text", text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text) }] : [],
     encrypted_content: encryptedContent,
   }
 }
@@ -440,7 +440,7 @@ const lowerUserContent = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (
   request: LLMRequest,
   extension: Extension,
 ) {
-  if (part.type === "text") return { type: "input_text" as const, text: part.text }
+  if (part.type === "text") return { type: "input_text" as const, text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text) }
   if (part.type === "media") return yield* lowerMessageMedia(part, request, extension)
   return yield* ProviderShared.unsupportedContent(extension.name, "user", ["text", "media"])
 })
@@ -459,7 +459,7 @@ const lowerToolResultContentItem = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (
   request: LLMRequest,
   extension: Extension,
 ) {
-  if (item.type === "text") return { type: "input_text" as const, text: item.text }
+  if (item.type === "text") return { type: "input_text" as const, text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(item.text) }
   return yield* lowerMedia(
     { type: "media", mediaType: item.mime, data: item.uri, filename: item.name },
     request,
@@ -473,7 +473,7 @@ const lowerHostedToolResultContentItem = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (
   request: LLMRequest,
   extension: Extension,
 ) {
-  if (item.type === "text") return { type: "input_text" as const, text: item.text }
+  if (item.type === "text") return { type: "input_text" as const, text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(item.text) }
   return yield* lowerMessageMedia(
     { type: "media", mediaType: item.mime, data: item.uri, filename: item.name },
     request,
@@ -541,7 +541,7 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("OpenResponses.lowerMessages")(function* (reques
             type: "message" as const,
             ...(group.id === undefined ? {} : { id: group.id }),
             role: "assistant" as const,
-            content: group.parts.map((part) => ({ type: "output_text" as const, text: part.text })),
+            content: group.parts.map((part) => ({ type: "output_text" as const, text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text) })),
             ...(group.phase === undefined ? {} : { phase: group.phase }),
           })),
         )
diff --git a/packages/ai/src/protocols/openai-chat.ts b/packages/ai/src/protocols/openai-chat.ts
index 95d0249144f..9f3b59dbaf1 100644
--- a/packages/ai/src/protocols/openai-chat.ts
+++ b/packages/ai/src/protocols/openai-chat.ts
@@ -322,7 +322,11 @@ const lowerUserMessage = Effect.fn("OpenAIChat.lowerUserMessage")(function* (
   const content: Array<Schema.Schema.Type<typeof OpenAIChatUserContent>> = []
   for (const part of message.content) {
     if (part.type === "text") {
-      content.push({ type: "text", text: part.text, cache_control: options.cacheControl?.(part.cache) })
+      content.push({
+        type: "text",
+        text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text),
+        cache_control: options.cacheControl?.(part.cache),
+      })
       continue
     }
     if (part.type === "media") {
@@ -363,7 +367,7 @@ const lowerAssistantMessage = Effect.fn("OpenAIChat.lowerAssistantMessage")(func
       continue
     }
   }
-  const text = reasoning.map((part) => part.text).join("")
+  const text = reasoning.map((part) => ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text)).join("")
   const details = reasoningDetails(reasoning, message.native?.openaiCompatible)
   const observedField = reasoning.map(reasoningField).find((value) => value !== undefined)
   const nativeReasoning = openAICompatibleReasoningContent(message.native?.openaiCompatible)
@@ -384,7 +388,12 @@ const lowerAssistantMessage = Effect.fn("OpenAIChat.lowerAssistantMessage")(func
   const cacheControl = options.cacheControl?.(cached && "cache" in cached ? cached.cache : undefined)
   const result = {
     role: "assistant" as const,
-    content: content.length > 0 ? content.map((part) => part.text).join("") : toolCalls.length > 0 ? null : "",
+    content:
+      content.length > 0
+        ? content.map((part) => ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text)).join("")
+        : toolCalls.length > 0
+          ? null
+          : "",
     ...(toolCalls.length > 0 ? { tool_calls: toolCalls } : {}),
     ...(details !== undefined ? { reasoning_details: details } : {}),
     ...(cacheControl !== undefined ? { cache_control: cacheControl } : {}),
@@ -412,7 +421,9 @@ const lowerToolMessages = Effect.fn("OpenAIChat.lowerToolMessages")(function* (
       continue
     }
     const content: ReadonlyArray<Tool.Content> = part.result.value
-    const text = content.filter((item) => item.type === "text").map((item) => item.text)
+    const text = content
+      .filter((item) => item.type === "text")
+      .map((item) => ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(item.text))
     messages.push({
       role: "tool",
       tool_call_id: part.id,
@@ -449,7 +460,7 @@ const lowerMessages = Effect.fn("OpenAIChat.lowerMessages")(function* (request:
               role: "system",
               content: request.system.map((part) => ({
                 type: "text",
-                text: part.text,
+                text: ProviderShared.sanitizeSurrogates(part.text),
                 cache_control: options.cacheControl?.(part.cache),
               })),
             },
diff --git a/packages/ai/src/protocols/shared.ts b/packages/ai/src/protocols/shared.ts
index 49d8acef386..f1fc9297c0f 100644
--- a/packages/ai/src/protocols/shared.ts
+++ b/packages/ai/src/protocols/shared.ts
@@ -35,6 +35,12 @@ export const clampPromptCacheKey = (key: string | undefined): string | undefined
   return chars.slice(0, OPENAI_PROMPT_CACHE_KEY_MAX_LENGTH).join("")
 }
 
+// Removes unpaired surrogates that break JSON serialization. Valid paired
+// surrogates (emoji etc) are preserved. Used for every model-visible text
+// field before wire encoding.
+export const sanitizeSurrogates = (text: string): string =>
+  text.replace(/[\uD800-\uDBFF](?![\uDC00-\uDFFF])|(?<![\uD800-\uDBFF])[\uDC00-\uDFFF]/g, "")
+
 /**
  * Streaming tool-call accumulator. Adapters that build a tool call across
  * multiple `tool-input-delta` chunks store the partial JSON input string here
@@ -115,7 +121,8 @@ export const parseJson = (route: string, input: string, message: string) =>
  * (OpenAI Chat `system` content, OpenAI Responses `system` content, Gemini
  * `systemInstruction.parts[].text`).
  */
-export const joinText = (parts: ReadonlyArray<{ readonly text: string }>) => parts.map((part) => part.text).join("\n")
+export const joinText = (parts: ReadonlyArray<{ readonly text: string }>) =>
+  parts.map((part) => sanitizeSurrogates(part.text)).join("\n")
 
 const escapeSystemUpdateText = (text: string) =>
   text.replaceAll("&", "&amp;").replaceAll("<", "&lt;").replaceAll(">", "&gt;")
@@ -186,15 +193,15 @@ export const normalizeToolFile = (part: Tool.FileContent) =>
 export const trimBaseUrl = (value: string) => value.replace(/\/+$/, "")
 
 export const toolResultText = (part: ToolResultPart) => {
-  if (part.result.type === "text") return String(part.result.value)
+  if (part.result.type === "text") return sanitizeSurrogates(String(part.result.value))
   if (part.result.type === "error") {
     const value = part.result.value
     const prototype =
       typeof value === "object" && value !== null && !Array.isArray(value) && Object.getPrototypeOf(value)
     const structured = Array.isArray(value) || prototype === Object.prototype || prototype === null
-    return structured && isJson(value) ? encodeJson(value) : String(value)
+    return sanitizeSurrogates(structured && isJson(value) ? encodeJson(value) : String(value))
   }
-  return encodeJson(part.result.value)
+  return sanitizeSurrogates(encodeJson(part.result.value))
 }
 
 export const errorText = (error: unknown) => {