Engine 0.1.37: a silent engine is restarted (#481), Windows AMD counts the desktop's VRAM (#380 #377 #497), a steadier PCIe probe (#485), fixes #496 #495 #498 #505 #493; setup requires it

The probe timed one 1 GiB burst; an x16 PCIe 4 laptop (RTX A3000) read 18.5, 6.9 and 5.8 GB/s
in three starts, and the low reading set pcie_frac (0.12-0.15 where calibrate.py found 0.35).
The same 1 GiB is now four bursts of 256 MiB, each timed on its own (events between them on
the stream; on Windows HIP the host clock, #377), and the fastest is the link's figure: a
disturbance only ever slows a copy, while the median would still follow one lasting through
half the bursts. The probe copies no more than before.

The share was base above 20 GB/s and base * bw / 26 below (19.9 GB/s -> 0.42, 20.0 -> 0.55;
4.0 -> 0.08, 3.9 -> 0). It is now base * min(1, bw / 20): continuous, unchanged from 20 GB/s
up (an x16 PCIe 4/5 link reads ~26-28 GB/s, so the default stays 0.55 there), in proportion to
the link below, so the link's time on its share stays about what the x16 share costs. The rule
is one function for CUDA0 and the layer split's stages.

The log names every burst: "PCIe probe: 28.9 GB/s host->device (best of 28.9 28.9 28.9 28.9)"
(the RTX 5070 here; pcie_frac 0.55 as before).
Noted, not changed: a given --pcie-frac is every stage's share and skips the stages' probes.

CMakeLists.txt

@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 # below refuses anything older: silently building for a pre-Ampere arch would produce a binary that runs
 # and is wrong about its own performance, which is the worst of both outcomes.
 cmake_minimum_required(VERSION 3.24)
-project(strata VERSION 0.1.34 LANGUAGES CXX)
+project(strata VERSION 0.1.37 LANGUAGES CXX)
 add_compile_definitions(STRATA_VERSION="${PROJECT_VERSION}")
 # issue #31: release builds keep a PDB beside the exe (not shipped in it), so a minidump from a stalled engine can
 # be read back to the exact source line
@@ -350,6 +350,14 @@ if(STRATA_ENABLE_CUDA OR STRATA_ENABLE_HIP)
     add_test(NAME file_expert_source_test COMMAND file_expert_source_test)
     set_tests_properties(file_expert_source_test PROPERTIES TIMEOUT 60)
   endif()
+  # #477: the learned expert profile (--expert-profile-save): its order and make_profile.py's file format (CPU only)
+  if(EXISTS "${CMAKE_CURRENT_SOURCE_DIR}/tests/core/expert_profile_save_test.cpp")
+    enable_testing()
+    add_executable(expert_profile_save_test tests/core/expert_profile_save_test.cpp)
+    target_link_libraries(expert_profile_save_test PRIVATE strata_engine)
+    add_test(NAME expert_profile_save_test COMMAND expert_profile_save_test)
+    set_tests_properties(expert_profile_save_test PROPERTIES TIMEOUT 60)
+  endif()
   if(STRATA_BUILD_TESTS AND STRATA_NATIVE_EXPERTS)
     # native_experts.txt v2-v4 (the real packs' copies and the per-role shard column) and the arena filled from
     # synthetic GGUF shards at the real expert dimensions
@@ -580,6 +588,14 @@ if(STRATA_ENABLE_CUDA OR STRATA_ENABLE_HIP)
   set_tests_properties(sampler_parity_one_block PROPERTIES ENVIRONMENT "STRATA_OLD_SAMPLER=0;STRATA_SAMPLER_ONE_BLOCK=1")
   add_test(NAME sampler_parity_old COMMAND sampler_parity --selftest)
   set_tests_properties(sampler_parity_old PROPERTIES ENVIRONMENT "STRATA_OLD_SAMPLER=1;STRATA_SAMPLER_ONE_BLOCK=0")
+  # S19: the decode QSA top-k and the greedy argmax on thread-block clusters (sm_90+) vs the one-CTA kernels, bitwise,
+  # captured in a graph too (GPU, synthetic, no model; skips below sm_90); --bench: per-call times
+  if(STRATA_ENABLE_CUDA)
+    add_executable(decode_cluster_parity src/kernels/decode_cluster_parity.cpp)
+    target_include_directories(decode_cluster_parity PRIVATE ${_strata_gpu_include_directories})
+    target_link_libraries(decode_cluster_parity PRIVATE strata_kernels ${_strata_gpu_runtime_target})
+    add_test(NAME decode_cluster_parity COMMAND decode_cluster_parity --selftest)
+  endif()
 
   add_executable(rope_parity src/kernels/rope_parity.cpp)
   target_include_directories(rope_parity PRIVATE ${_strata_gpu_include_directories})
@@ -868,7 +884,10 @@ if(STRATA_NATIVE_EXPERTS)
       set(_strata_gg ${strata_llamacpp_SOURCE_DIR}/ggml)
     endif()
     set(_strata_mmq ${_strata_gg}/src/ggml-cuda)
-    add_library(strata_mmq STATIC src/prefill/moe_mmq.cu src/prefill/ggml_cuda_host.cu ${_strata_mmq}/quantize.cu)
+    # #136: the Q2_0 pack's prompt experts on Strata's own int8 kernels (moe_fused.cu, opt-in STRATA_PF_FUSED=1; CUDA
+    # only: the HIP branch below keeps MMQ, and an sm_75 device or an sm_75-only build reports them unavailable)
+    add_library(strata_mmq STATIC src/prefill/moe_mmq.cu src/prefill/moe_fused.cu src/prefill/moe_fused_iq.cu
+                src/prefill/ggml_cuda_host.cu ${_strata_mmq}/quantize.cu)
     # q8_0: the drafter's matrices (E-9); STRATA_ORCA_Q4KS_MMQ adds q5_0 (#296, in _strata_mmq_types), and
     # STRATA_MMQ_KQUANTS q4_k q5_k q5_1, the experts of Unsloth's UD-Q4_K_XL (docs/UNSLOTH_Q4.md; the dispatch
     # follows eddoursul/Strata 7706c1b)
@@ -893,7 +912,19 @@ if(STRATA_NATIVE_EXPERTS)
       target_compile_definitions(strata_mmq PRIVATE STRATA_ORCA_Q4KS_MMQ=1)
     endif()
     target_link_libraries(strata_prefill PUBLIC strata_mmq)
-    target_compile_definitions(strata_prefill PUBLIC STRATA_PREFILL_MMQ=1)
+    target_compile_definitions(strata_prefill PUBLIC STRATA_PREFILL_MMQ=1 STRATA_PREFILL_FUSED=1)
+    if(STRATA_BUILD_TESTS)
+      # #136: the fused int8 experts against a double-precision reference and the MMQ path (exit 77 below sm_80)
+      add_executable(prefill_fused_moe_test tests/cuda/prefill_fused_moe_test.cpp)
+      target_link_libraries(prefill_fused_moe_test PRIVATE strata_mmq ggml-base ${_strata_gpu_runtime_target})
+      add_test(NAME prefill_fused_moe_test COMMAND prefill_fused_moe_test)
+      set_tests_properties(prefill_fused_moe_test PROPERTIES SKIP_RETURN_CODE 77 TIMEOUT 300)
+      # #136: the same for the native packs' formats (IQ2_XXS IQ2_XS IQ2_S IQ3_XXS IQ3_S IQ4_XS, down Q2_0 IQ4_NL)
+      add_executable(prefill_fused_iq_test tests/cuda/prefill_fused_iq_test.cpp)
+      target_link_libraries(prefill_fused_iq_test PRIVATE strata_mmq ggml-base ${_strata_gpu_runtime_target})
+      add_test(NAME prefill_fused_iq_test COMMAND prefill_fused_iq_test)
+      set_tests_properties(prefill_fused_iq_test PROPERTIES SKIP_RETURN_CODE 77 TIMEOUT 600)
+    endif()
     if(STRATA_BUILD_TESTS AND STRATA_MMQ_KQUANTS)
       # the UD-Q4_K_XL expert formats through MMQ against ggml's dequantized weights (synthetic, a few seconds)
       add_executable(prefill_mmq_kquant_test tests/cuda/prefill_mmq_kquant_test.cpp)

README.md

@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ word, so 60 tokens per second is faster than you can read.
 
 | Size | Writes answers | Reads your prompt |
 | --- | ---: | ---: |
-| **Q2_0** | 93 tokens/s | 2,170 tokens/s |
+| **Q2_0** | 94 tokens/s | 2,650 tokens/s |
 | **IQ2_XS** | 79 tokens/s | 2,090 tokens/s |
 | **IQ3_XXS** | 62 tokens/s | 1,750 tokens/s |
 | **IQ3_S** | 53 tokens/s | 1,620 tokens/s |
@@ -87,7 +87,8 @@ it left off) and starts it. Your browser opens the Strata app at `http://127.0.0
 > window. The window tells you what it is doing.
 
 **Next time**, run `START-HERE.bat` (or `./setup.sh`) again: it starts right away, nothing is downloaded twice. Close
-its window to stop the model. Updating, Docker, several cards, where the files go and every option:
+its window to stop the model. `UPDATE.bat` (`./update.sh`) updates Strata without starting it. Updating, Docker,
+several cards, where the files go and every option:
 [docs/INSTALL.md](docs/INSTALL.md).
 
 ## Which model should I pick?
@@ -103,7 +104,8 @@ is faster, larger is a bit smarter.
 | **96 GB or more** | **IQ3_S**, or Unsloth's 4-bit (experimental) | room for the largest sizes with everything else open |
 
 - **[Coder](docs/MODELS.md#coder)** - a coding version with half of the experts removed: 91% of the full model's
-  SWE-bench Verified score (by its authors), fits 32 GB of RAM. Weaker outside coding.
+  SWE-bench Verified score (by its authors), fits 32 GB of RAM. Weaker outside code, including Chinese and other
+  CJK text (#438): for those, take Q2_0, IQ2_XS or IQ3_S, which keep every expert.
 - **[Swift 1.5](docs/MODELS.md#swift-15)** - a fine-tune that thinks much shorter before it answers, so you get the
   answer sooner, at about the same quality.
 - **[Unsloth UD-Q4_K_XL](docs/MODELS.md#unsloth-ud-q4_k_xl-experimental)** (experimental) - the closest to the full

UPDATE.bat

@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+@echo off
+rem Update Strata without starting the model (#475): the newest code (git pull, when this folder is a git clone), then
+rem what START-HERE.bat does before a start - the engine (a new one when this version needs it), the Python packages,
+rem each installed model's settings and draft subset. The model files are not touched. Start the model later with
+rem START-HERE.bat. Options are passed on to setup.py.
+setlocal
+title Strata - update
+cd /d "%~dp0"
+rem All of it in one block: cmd reads a .bat file while it runs it, and the git pull can change this very file.
+(
+  if exist ".git" (
+    where git >nul 2>nul || (
+      echo  This folder is a git clone, but git is not on PATH: install Git for Windows ^(winget install Git.Git^)
+      echo  or run "git pull" here yourself, then run UPDATE.bat again.
+      pause
+      exit /b 1
+    )
+    echo  Getting the newest Strata ^(git pull^) ...
+    git pull --ff-only || (
+      echo.
+      echo  git pull did not succeed ^(the reason is above^): nothing was updated. Files you changed here can stop it:
+      echo  "git status" lists them.
+      pause
+      exit /b 1
+    )
+  ) else (
+    echo  This copy of Strata was not made with git, so it cannot fetch new files itself. Download the newest one:
+    echo    https://github.com/Niko1221/Strata/archive/refs/heads/main.zip
+    echo  unzip it anywhere and run START-HERE.bat ^(or UPDATE.bat^) in it: it finds the model files in Strata-data
+    echo  and sets itself up the same way - nothing big is downloaded again.
+    echo  Checking this copy's engine and settings meanwhile ...
+  )
+  call "%~dp0START-HERE.bat" --update %*
+  if not errorlevel 1 pause
+  exit /b
+)

docs/AMD_HIP.md

@@ -68,6 +68,11 @@ On a PC with no NVIDIA card Strata can use, the AMD card is chosen by itself; wi
   amd_comgr and the Microsoft C++ runtime; ROCm 10.2.0a20260930 from AMD's TheRock builds, licenses in
   `engine\rocm\licenses`). The HIP runtime works through the AMD driver's own components, so the driver is the one
   thing it needs from the PC.
+- **The HIP runtime next to `strata.exe` (0.1.35, #468 #461):** `amdhip64_7.dll` and `amd_comgr.dll` are also put in
+  `engine\` (setup copies them there on every start). Windows looks in the program's folder before System32, where
+  some AMD drivers install their own `amdhip64_7.dll`; with that one, the bundled libraries crashed on the first
+  prompt (an access violation, or `hipErrorInvalidDeviceFunction`). The engine's log names the runtime it loaded
+  (`strata generate: HIP runtime ...`).
 - **Before the ~60 GB model download** setup runs `engine\strata-device.exe --list-devices` (with `engine\rocm\bin` on
   the PATH): if the HIP runtime does not see the card, setup stops there and points to the driver. It also gives the
   card's HIP number: with an integrated Radeon that is device 1, not 0 (#325). From then on setup lists the AMD cards
@@ -79,6 +84,13 @@ On a PC with no NVIDIA card Strata can use, the AMD card is chosen by itself; wi
   succeeded, on Windows only. `hipHostGetDevicePointer` returns the host pointer itself on Windows: kernels read
   mapped memory through it correctly, but a device-to-device copy into it does not land, which is why
   `tests/hip/handoff` times out there (the engine does not use that copy; `tests/hip/mapped_alias` reports it).
+- Two more (#380, #377, by BlueKingMuch, measured on an RX 6800 that drives the desktop): `hipMemGetInfo` on Windows
+  does not subtract what the desktop and other programs hold on the card, so `--expert-cache auto` filled the card
+  past what Windows keeps in VRAM and decode fell from 41 to 30 tok/s. The engine now lowers that free figure by
+  what Windows' video memory budget for the process withholds (logged once: `strata: Windows budgets N of this
+  card's M MiB ...`; `STRATA_WDDM_BUDGET=0` turns it off). And the PCIe probe times its copies on the host clock
+  there, since HIP's events read impossible speeds (3,300-26,000 GB/s), so a slow link now gets a smaller
+  `pcie_frac` as on NVIDIA.
 
 **What is validated (0.1.34):** #325's author ran the engine of this port on an RX 9070 XT (Windows 11, ROCm
 10.2.0a20260930 in `.venv`, compiled on the PC): Coder IQ1_M at 32K, 29.2 tok/s decode, ~181 tok/s prefill,

docs/DETAILS.md

@@ -19,6 +19,15 @@ RTX 5070 **12 GB**, Ryzen 5 7600 (6 cores), 64 GB DDR5-5200, Windows, engine 0.1
 MTP speculative decoding on. "262K" is the model's full context window (a 259,943-token prompt). The IQ2_XS row was
 measured with Swift 1.5's IQ2_XS, which runs at the original's speed.
 
+**Engine 0.1.36 (#136), the same PC:** Q2_0's prompt experts run on fused int8 tensor-core kernels (RTX 30 and newer):
+4K 1,294 -> 1,570, 32K 2,170 -> 2,653, 128K 2,123 -> 2,468 tokens/s (+16-22%), as close to an FP16 reference as the
+previous kernels (closer at 32K: teacher-forced KL 0.009 vs 0.012). The decode path's block selection and greedy
+argmax run on thread-block clusters (RTX 50, sm_90+; other cards keep the previous kernels; the same tokens): Q2_0 output at 4K 89 -> 93.5, at 128K
+64.5 -> 76.4 tokens/s. `STRATA_PF_FUSED=0` keeps the previous prompt kernels (byte-identical answers to 0.1.35);
+`STRATA_PF_FUSED=1` also runs the native IQ packs' fused kernels (opt-in: IQ2_XS prompts +12% at 4K, +3% at 32K, the
+IQ3 packs about even); `STRATA_QSA_CLUSTER=0` / `STRATA_ARGMAX_MULTI=0` turn the decode kernels off. The tables
+below are 0.1.26's.
+
 ### Prompt processing (tokens/s)
 
 | Model | 1K | 4K | 32K | 64K | 128K | 262K |
@@ -98,7 +107,10 @@ English/code subset from before (40,525 ids, ~110 MiB less VRAM, English answers
 almost no drafts). `--draft-vocab cyrillic` takes the English/code subset plus the whole Cyrillic script (58,963
 ids): the shipped subsets hold 142 of the vocabulary's 18,580 Cyrillic tokens, so Ukrainian or Russian answers got
 1.4 tokens a round; with it 2.1, and 83 -> 109 tokens/s (RTX 5090, the NVFP4 fork), English unchanged.
-`tools/draft_vocab.py` builds and inspects subsets.
+`tools/draft_vocab.py` builds and inspects subsets. When the start stops with "the draft head does not fit" (a
+12 GB card with a long context, #474), the engine says how much the head needs, how much VRAM is free and which
+smaller subset fits, and the server's start error repeats it; setup suggests `--draft-vocab en` on cards under
+14 GB (only a suggestion: nothing changes unless you pass it).
 
 **Low-RAM mode (engine 0.1.26, chosen by setup):** normally all of a model's experts are copied into RAM (23-50 GB,
 pinned) and the GPU holds a copy of the most-used ones. On a PC whose RAM cannot hold them beside the system (the
@@ -159,7 +171,8 @@ RTX 5070, against ~3 tokens/s before these changes.
 RAM copy, blobs and MB from the files, the time spent reading them; `routing prefetch`: how many of the file reads had
 been warmed). The server log has the same per request (`expert tiers: GPU ... hits ...; RAM ... blobs, files ...
 blobs ... MB read`), and `GET /metrics` lists `ram_blobs`, `file_blobs` and `file_mb` for each recent request (with
-engine 0.1.31 or newer).
+engine 0.1.31 or newer). It also lists each request's speculative drafts, `drafts_offered` and `drafts_accepted`
+(`null` when the engine did not report them), and their sums since the server started in `totals` (#457).
 
 Time to first token is prompt length / prompt speed: with Q2_0 about 4 s at 4K, 25 s at 32K, under 2 minutes at 128K
 and 4.5 minutes at 262K (engine 0.1.13 made long prompts about twice as fast, below).
@@ -400,6 +413,17 @@ the OS file cache, so loading again takes seconds while that RAM is not needed e
 16 GB with Q2_0 in the low-RAM mode: unloading takes ~0.3 s, and a request to an unloaded model answered after
 4.6 s (text) or 14.7 s (a picture, image encoder on the CPU).
 
+**Keep what the expert cache learned across restarts (opt-in, engine 0.1.36, #477):** a start fills the GPU's expert
+cache from the shipped profile, and the adaptive tier (`--adapt-every`) then moves in the experts your requests use.
+With `"expert_profile_save": "expert-profile-learned.bin"` in `strata-<model>.json` the engine saves that as a
+profile - the experts in VRAM first, then the routing it counted since the start, then the shipped order - on a
+clean exit and every 10 minutes between requests (`"expert_profile_save_every": 5` for another interval, `0` for
+exit only), written to a temporary file and renamed, so a crash never leaves half a file. The next start begins from
+it instead of the config's `--expert-profile` when it is a profile of the same model (else from the config's, as
+before). A relative path is in the Strata folder; one file per model, and a profile per project works the same way
+(point the key at another file). The file is a fingerprint of what you used the model for: it stays on your PC.
+Without the key nothing is counted or written. Setup rewrites the config when run again: add the key again then.
+
 ---
 
 ## Using it
@@ -792,6 +816,7 @@ the document, +0.4% on the chat. Details: `bench/results/2026-09-27-esp/`.
 | Pictures are slow (10-30 s) | The encoder runs on the CPU: run setup again with `--vision gpu` (needs ~1.4 GB of VRAM). |
 | A request never finishes: "reading the prompt", GPU "100%" at low power | The GPU ran out of VRAM (engines before 0.1.9 could end with ~30 MiB free at large contexts). Run `START-HERE.bat` once to get engine 0.1.9 or newer; the log then says `... MiB of VRAM free with everything loaded` (a few hundred) and names the `--vram-reserve-mib` to add if it is low. |
 | Generation stops mid-answer, GPU "100%", one CPU core busy | Fixed in engine 0.1.12 (issue #29, a race in the CPU expert pool on big-VRAM cards). Since then a request that stops moving ends with an error instead of hanging (after 2 minutes; 1 minute from 0.1.13): the log says `no progress for ... s ... (issue #29)` with where it stopped, and the next request starts the engine again. If you see that line, please open an issue with it. Engine 0.1.13 adds a stall report under it (what every expert-pool thread and the GPU handshake were doing, memory and page faults) and, on Windows, a `strata-stall-<pid>.dmp` file with every thread's stack: attach both. (`STRATA_WATCHDOG_S` sets the time in seconds; 0 turns it off.) Engine 0.1.14 fixes the stall those reports found (issue #31: with the IQ packs the host could wait forever inside the NVIDIA driver while copying experts in a verify window; the experts are now copied by a GPU kernel, `--pcie-mode dma` restores the old way). |
+| `the engine said nothing for ... s during the request` or `... did not finish the request after it was stopped (STOP)` | Issue #481: the engine and the server lost step (the engine waits for its next command, the server for the request's end; GPU at 0 %, nothing in the log). The server ends the engine after 300 s without a line from it during a request (while a prompt is read: each chunk may take three times the previous one's time, the first one up to its tokens at 50 tok/s more), the request ends with an error and the next request starts the engine again. `"engine_silence_s": 600` in `strata-<model>.json` sets the time (0 = wait forever, as before). If you see it, please add the end of the engine log to #481. |
 | `out of memory: cudaFuncSetAttribute` in the log (IQ3_XXS, long prompt) | Fixed in engine 0.1.15: CUDA loaded a kernel's code when it was first needed, and mid-prompt there was no VRAM left for it. Run `START-HERE.bat` (Windows) or `./setup.sh` (Linux) once to update. |
 | Anything else | The engine log is `strata-<model>.log` in this folder. |
 

docs/INSTALL.md

@@ -123,11 +123,20 @@ The same idea, in a container (NVIDIA cards).
 
 ## Updating
 
-Download the new version and unzip it anywhere (or `git pull`), then run `START-HERE.bat` (Linux: `./setup.sh`) in
-it. The model files are kept in a `Strata-data` folder next to your Strata folder, so a new copy finds them and sets
-itself up the same way - nothing big is downloaded again. On Linux after a `git pull`, setup compiles the engine
-again when its source changed (a minute or two for the changed files); if that compile fails, it says so and starts
-the engine you had.
+**`UPDATE.bat`** (Linux: `./update.sh`) updates Strata without starting the model - for when the GPU is busy with
+something else, or you just want the new version ready. In a `git clone` it runs `git pull`, then does what
+`START-HERE.bat` does before a start: the engine (a new ready-made one when the new version needs it; on Linux a
+compiled engine is compiled again when its source changed), the Python packages, and each installed model's settings
+and draft subset. The model files are not touched (at most a new engine is downloaded) and no question is asked.
+Close the model's window first (a running engine cannot be replaced); start the model later with `START-HERE.bat` as
+usual. In a copy that was downloaded as a zip it says to download the new zip (below): it cannot fetch new files
+itself.
+
+Or by hand: download the new version and unzip it anywhere (or `git pull`), then run `START-HERE.bat` (Linux:
+`./setup.sh`) in it. The model files are kept in a `Strata-data` folder next to your Strata folder, so a new copy
+finds them and sets itself up the same way - nothing big is downloaded again. On Linux after a `git pull`, setup
+compiles the engine again when its source changed (a minute or two for the changed files); if that compile fails, it
+says so and starts the engine you had.
 
 ## Where things are stored
 
@@ -177,11 +186,26 @@ START-HERE.bat --data-dir E:\Strata-data         keep the model files somewhere
 START-HERE.bat --port 8081                      another port
 START-HERE.bat --gpu 1                          another GPU (setup picks the one with the most VRAM)
 START-HERE.bat --gpus 0,2                       several GPUs sharing the model
+START-HERE.bat --vram-reserve-mib 2048          leave 2 GB of VRAM free for other programs (remembered)
 START-HERE.bat --setup --backend hip            the AMD engine on a PC that also has an NVIDIA card
 START-HERE.bat --setup --host 0.0.0.0 --api-key <secret>     reachable from other devices, with a key
 START-HERE.bat --calibrate                      tune the engine for this PC (about 5-10 minutes), then start
 START-HERE.bat --check                          only check this PC
 ```
 
+**Leaving VRAM for other programs (#493):** Strata fills the graphics card's free VRAM with experts (the expert cache)
+and leaves `--vram-reserve-mib` MiB free: 700 by default. For a game, a 3D program or another model beside it, leave
+more: `START-HERE.bat --vram-reserve-mib 2048` (Linux: `./setup.sh --vram-reserve-mib 2048`) writes it into the
+model's `strata-<model>.json` and starts it; at setup (`--setup --vram-reserve-mib 2048`) it goes into the new config.
+By hand: add `"--vram-reserve-mib", "2048"` to the config's `"args"` list and restart. The expert cache is then that
+much smaller, so answers can be a little slower. The engine sizes its cache from the VRAM free when it starts: what
+another program already holds then is left alone anyway; the reserve is room for what it takes later.
+
+**Model files downloaded by hand, or from a mirror (#495):** setup's step 5 prints the folder it expects them in
+(`Strata-data\models\<SIZE>\`, e.g. `Strata-data\models\IQ3_XXS\`): put them there with their original names, or
+point setup at them with `--gguf-dir`. To let setup download from a Hugging Face mirror itself, set `HF_ENDPOINT`
+first (Windows: `set HF_ENDPOINT=https://hf-mirror.com`, Linux: `export HF_ENDPOINT=https://hf-mirror.com`): the same
+pinned revisions and checks apply, and the MTP draft layer comes from there too.
+
 On Linux the same options go to `./setup.sh`. `START-HERE.bat --help` lists them all. The server's own settings
 (sharing the GPU with games, MCP tools, CORS, API keys, the API itself) are in the [details](DETAILS.md#using-it).

docs/MODELS.md

@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ Measured on an RTX 5070 (12 GB), a Ryzen 5 7600 and 64 GB of RAM:
 
 | Size | Writes answers (short chat) | Writes answers (128K context) | Reads your prompt |
 | --- | ---: | ---: | ---: |
-| **Q2_0** | 93 tokens/s | 74 tokens/s | 2,170 tokens/s |
+| **Q2_0** | 94 tokens/s | 76 tokens/s | 2,650 tokens/s |
 | **IQ2_XS** | 79 tokens/s | 63 tokens/s | 2,090 tokens/s |
 | **IQ3_XXS** | 62 tokens/s | 49 tokens/s | 1,750 tokens/s |
 | **IQ3_S** | 53 tokens/s | 46 tokens/s | 1,620 tokens/s |
@@ -94,7 +94,10 @@ The original, in all four sizes. With images, and with the
 half of the experts removed, keeping the ones that code, tool use and images need (91% of the full model's SWE-bench
 Verified score, 99% of LiveCodeBench, by its authors). One size (IQ1_M: its experts stored like IQ3_S): shard 1 is
 **29.6 GB**, so it fits a PC with **32 GB of RAM**, runs 262K context on 64 GB, and reads long prompts the fastest of
-all. Weaker outside coding. More: [details](DETAILS.md#or-the-coder-half-the-experts-for-code).
+all. It is weaker outside code, and that includes Chinese and other CJK text (#438: Chinese answers came out wrong
+or looping where English was fine). For general chat or CJK text, take a size that keeps every expert: Q2_0,
+IQ2_XS or IQ3_S.
+More: [details](DETAILS.md#or-the-coder-half-the-experts-for-code).
 
 ```
 START-HERE.bat --setup --family coder

docs/MULTI_GPU.md

@@ -8,7 +8,8 @@ speed comes from (decode then barely touches the CPU pool).
 
 This is pipeline (layer) parallelism, not tensor parallelism: a token crosses from one card to the next once per
 verify window (a few hundred KB through pinned RAM), not twice per layer. No NVLink or peer-to-peer access is
-needed; cards on x4 or x1 slots work, and the PCIe share of each card is probed on its own link.
+needed; cards on x4 or x1 slots work, and the PCIe share of each card is probed on its own link. A `--pcie-frac` you give
+is every card's share and skips those probes; there is no per-card setting yet.
 
 ## Using it
 

docs/UNSLOTH_Q4.md

@@ -25,8 +25,16 @@ What setup does differently for this model:
 - It needs 48 GB of RAM or more (with less it asks, default no; `--model UD-Q4_K_XL --yes` installs it anyway) and
   engine 0.1.32 or newer (checked before anything is downloaded), and an NVIDIA
   GPU: it has not been run on AMD cards (its prompt kernels for the Q4_K / Q5_K experts are NVIDIA-only), so with
-  `--backend hip` setup says so and asks before the download (#429; `--model UD-Q4_K_XL --yes` tries it). One GPU only: with `--gpus` it uses the first one and says so. No images (the vision encoder is not wired to
-  this file yet) and no experimental speed projection (not tested with it).
+  `--backend hip` setup says so and asks before the download (#429; `--model UD-Q4_K_XL --yes` tries it). One GPU
+  by default: the RAM budget below has no layer split (the engine refuses `--resident-budget-gib` with one). No
+  images (the vision encoder is not wired to this file yet) and no experimental speed projection (not tested with it).
+- Several GPUs (#498): when the RAM holds the GGUF files and 24 GB more (~135 GB of RAM) and two or more cards can
+  share it, setup asks (one GPU stays the default; `--gpus 0,1` takes the split). The split runs **without** the RAM budget: all 77 GB of experts are loaded into RAM from the GGUFs at
+  start, the files pass through the OS file cache while they load, and the config gets `"gpu": [0, 1]` and
+  `"layer_split": "auto"`. Measured on 2x RTX 3090 with 165 GiB (#498): decode 31 tok/s on one card with the budget,
+  64-78 tok/s split (55 tok/s at a 128K prompt), with `MemAvailable` never under 68 GiB. With less RAM, `--gpus`
+  keeps one GPU and says so, and `START-HERE.bat --gpus 0,1` on an installed UD-Q4_K_XL stops with the reason
+  (it used to keep the budget, and the engine exited with code 2).
 - It downloads the four shards below from the pinned revision `38bb39e` (resumable, like the other models), then
   checks each one's size and SHA-256 against the table below; the check takes a few minutes once and is remembered
   in the file's finish mark. A file with the wrong hash is deleted, so the next run downloads it again.

include/strata/core/expert_cache.hpp

@@ -55,6 +55,24 @@ inline constexpr int32_t kNotResident = -1;
 bool read_expert_profile(const std::string& path, int64_t n_layers, int64_t n_expert,
                          std::vector<std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>>& ranked, int64_t& slots, std::string& err);
 
+/// #477 (--expert-profile-save): what the adaptive tier learned, as a profile ranking EVERY (layer, expert) pair -
+/// the experts resident in VRAM now first (where the swaps left the cache), then the rest; within each, by `heat`
+/// (the routing the adaptive tier counted since the start, descending), then by `prior` (the profile the engine
+/// started from: an expert this run never routed keeps its old place), then by index.  A start from it begins
+/// where this one ended; one with more slots adds the hottest of the rest, one with fewer keeps the hottest.
+/// `resident` and `heat`: n_layers x n_expert entries (`heat` may be empty: no counts, the prior decides).
+std::vector<std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>> rank_learned_profile(int64_t n_layers, int64_t n_expert,
+                                                              const std::vector<uint8_t>& resident,
+                                                              const std::vector<double>& heat,
+                                                              const std::vector<std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>>& prior);
+
+/// #477: writes `ranked` in tools/make_profile.py's format, byte for byte: `STRP`, `1, n_layers, n_expert,
+/// n_ranked, n_ranked` (uint32), the pairs (uint16 layer, uint16 expert), then the n_layers x n_expert int32 table
+/// of each pair's rank (-1: not ranked).  Atomically: a `<path>.tmp` beside it, renamed over `path` once complete,
+/// so a reader (the next start) never sees half a file.  False with `err` when it could not be written.
+bool write_expert_profile(const std::string& path, int64_t n_layers, int64_t n_expert,
+                          const std::vector<std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>>& ranked, std::string& err);
+
 class ExpertCache {
 public:
     ExpertCache() = default;

include/strata/core/expert_source.hpp

@@ -421,6 +421,10 @@ public:
     /// CS-T, `budget_bytes` > 0 (`--resident-budget-gib`): only as many of those experts as fit `budget_bytes`, taken
     /// in `rank` order (the expert profile: the hottest after the GPU cache's), are copied; the rest stay on the
     /// mapped files (the SSD tier).  No lend region then (a lent slot's expert is read from the files).
+    /// #467: `budget_bytes` = `kResidentWhatFits` is that path sized by the RAM alone (available minus the headroom
+    /// and the #403 margin) - the soft --resident-experts mode's second try when the whole complement does not fit;
+    /// false when not even one expert fits.  On Windows the mapped experts leave the working set before any reading.
+    static constexpr uint64_t kResidentWhatFits = ~0ull;
     bool pin_cache_complement(
         const ExpertCache& cache, std::string& err, bool pin = true,
         const std::vector<std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>>& additional_gpu_pairs = {}, int64_t lend_from_slot = -1,

include/strata/hip_compat/cuda_runtime.h

@@ -62,7 +62,18 @@
 #define cudaLaunchHostFunc hipLaunchHostFunc
 #define cudaMalloc hipMalloc
 #define cudaMallocHost(...) (::strata::hip_compat::malloc_host(__VA_ARGS__))
+#if defined(_WIN32)
+// Windows: hipMemGetInfo counts this process's own allocations only, so the desktop's and other programs' share of
+// the card is invisible to it, and VRAM sized by it overfills the card (WDDM then moves memory out to system RAM and
+// the GPU slows down).  Its free figure is lowered by what Windows' video memory budget for this process withholds
+// (src/core/device.cu; STRATA_WDDM_BUDGET=0: hipMemGetInfo as it is).
+namespace strata::hip_compat {
+hipError_t mem_get_info(size_t* free_bytes, size_t* total_bytes);
+}
+#define cudaMemGetInfo ::strata::hip_compat::mem_get_info
+#else
 #define cudaMemGetInfo hipMemGetInfo
+#endif
 #define cudaMemcpy hipMemcpy
 #define cudaMemcpy2DAsync hipMemcpy2DAsync
 #define cudaMemcpyAsync hipMemcpyAsync

include/strata/kernels/qsa_select.hpp

@@ -11,7 +11,8 @@
 //                      a chunk it may already hold a block completed later, so it is not read).
 //   qsa_block_topk   : one block per query; a 4-pass radix select over the query's n_bid + 1 blocks, each
 //                      weighted by its cell count, then the cells emitted in ascending order with ties to the
-//                      lowest index - the same selection as topk_kernel, over a quarter of the elements.
+//                      lowest index - the same selection as topk_kernel, over a quarter of the elements.  On sm_90+
+//                      a call of up to 16 queries runs it on a cluster of 8 CTAs per query: the same ids.
 //
 // Queries carry their own step record (pos, n_kv, n_bid, width) as everywhere else in QSA.
 #pragma once
@@ -41,6 +42,11 @@ void qsa_block_topk(const float* scores, const int32_t* steps, int64_t nq, int64
                                                    ///< the same contract as qsa_block_scores's). The register kernel is
                                                    ///< chosen by this, not by the capacity max_blocks (a long
                                                    ///< --max-context otherwise sends every short prompt to the slow one)
+/// The same ids on a thread-block cluster of 8 CTAs per query (sm_90+, CUDA; S19). qsa_block_topk takes it for calls
+/// of up to 16 queries unless STRATA_QSA_CLUSTER=0. False (nothing launched) where it cannot run: HIP, a card or a
+/// build below sm_90, or a capacity whose keys do not fit one cluster's shared memory. Capturable.
+bool qsa_block_topk_cluster(const float* scores, const int32_t* steps, int64_t nq, int64_t max_blocks, int64_t cap,
+                            const QsaShapes& s, int32_t* ids, void* stream);
 /// The original kernel (keys read from memory on every radix pass), for tests: the same ids.
 void qsa_block_topk_ref(const float* scores, const int32_t* steps, int64_t nq, int64_t max_blocks, int64_t cap,
                         const QsaShapes& s, int32_t* ids, void* stream);

include/strata/kernels/sampler.hpp

@@ -42,6 +42,11 @@ struct SamplerParams {
 void sample_tokens(const float* logits, int n_tokens, int n_vocab, const int* history, int history_len,
                    const SamplerParams& p, int* out, void* stream);
 
+// The greedy pick (no penalties) on a thread-block cluster of 8 CTAs per row (sm_90+, CUDA; S19): the same token as
+// sample_tokens' one-block argmax, which takes it unless STRATA_ARGMAX_MULTI=0.  False (nothing launched) where it
+// cannot run: HIP, a card or a build below sm_90.  Device pointers; capturable.
+bool sample_greedy_cluster(const float* logits, int n_tokens, int n_vocab, int* out, void* stream);
+
 // ---- COUPLED DRAFT SAMPLING (include/strata/core/coupled_draft.hpp, STRATA_SPEC_COUPLED=1).  Device pointers
 // throughout; every per-request / per-round value comes from device memory, so the calls can be captured.
 //

include/strata/prefill/moe_fused.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+// include/strata/prefill/moe_fused.hpp - #136 (prompt speed): the routed experts of a Q2_0 pack in the prompt path on
+// Strata's own int8 tensor-core kernels, opt-in with STRATA_PF_FUSED=1 (NVIDIA sm_80 and newer; sm_75 and HIP: MMQ).
+//
+// The MMQ path (moe_mmq.hpp) per MoE layer: a host sync to group the (token, k) pairs by expert, a gather of each
+// expert into a 16-expert group buffer, then per group the q8_1 activations of every routed slot, gate/up, SwiGLU,
+// the q8_1 of H and down - five passes over per-slot buffers.  Here:
+//   - the activations are rounded to int8 once per TOKEN (not per slot), with a scale per 32 values;
+//   - the grouping (counts, offsets, the rows of each expert, a list of 64-row tiles) runs on the GPU from the
+//     router's ids, so the host never waits for the routing;
+//   - one launch per batch of up to kMaxBatch experts reads each expert where it already is (a resident cache slot
+//     or a slot of the streamed ring: a pointer per expert, no gather) - gate/up with SwiGLU and the int8 rounding
+//     of H in its epilogue, then down into the per-slot rows the existing combine reads.
+// The 2-bit codes are unpacked in registers and multiplied with mma.sync m16n8k32 (s8 x s8 -> s32); Q2_0's offset
+// (w = d * (q - 1)) is folded into the activation blocks' sums.  The numbers differ from MMQ's (another int8
+// rounding of the activations and of H) by about as much as MMQ differs from FP32 (tests/cuda/prefill_fused_moe_test).
+#pragma once
+
+#include <cstddef>
+#include <cstdint>
+
+namespace strata::prefill::fused {
+
+/// Routed rows (token, k pairs of one expert) per tile.
+constexpr int kTileRows = 64;
+/// Experts per launch: their blob pointers travel in the launch's parameters (1 KB).
+constexpr int kMaxBatch = 128;
+
+/// This build has the kernels (a CUDA build; HIP and builds without MMQ do not).
+bool built();
+/// built(), and the current device is sm_80 or newer (mma.sync with s8 operands at m16n8k32).
+bool available();
+/// available(), unless STRATA_PF_FUSED=0 (read once): the Q2_0 pack's fused experts, on by default since 0.1.36.
+bool enabled();
+/// STRATA_PF_FUSED=1 given explicitly, and available(): the native IQ packs' fused kernels (opt-in).
+bool requested();
+
+/// Bytes of `rows` activation rows of `cols` values (a multiple of 64) in the kernels' int8 form: per 64 values 64
+/// codes and {d, c} of each half (c = -(1.5 * 2^23 + the half's code sum), what the epilogue adds back).
+size_t act_bytes(int64_t rows, int64_t cols);
+/// Bytes of the grouping tables for `n` routed rows over `n_expert` experts.
+size_t group_bytes(int64_t n, int n_expert);
+
+/// x [rows][cols] FP32 -> `xa` (act_bytes(rows, cols)).
+void quantize_act(const float* x, int64_t rows, int64_t cols, void* xa, void* stream);
+
+/// The routing `ids` [n = tokens * k] -> per expert its rows (counts, offsets, the 64-row tile list, in `scratch`,
+/// group_bytes(n, n_expert)), `slot[i]` = the row of pair i (the row of the per-slot outputs the combine reads) and
+/// `src[row]` = its token (i / k).  The order of the rows within an expert is not fixed; no output depends on it.
+void group(const int32_t* ids, int64_t n, int k, int n_expert, void* scratch, int32_t* slot, int32_t* src,
+           void* stream);
+
+/// Experts [e0, e1) of one layer (e1 - e0 <= kMaxBatch); blob[e - e0]: the Strata Q2_0 blob of expert e on the
+/// device (16-byte aligned), read only for an expert with rows.
+struct Batch {
+    int e0 = 0, e1 = 0;
+    const uint8_t* blob[kMaxBatch] = {};
+};
+/// The batch's products: gate/up from `xa` (quantize_act of the layer's input, [tokens][2560]) through the rows
+/// `src` of `group`, SwiGLU, H as int8 into `ha` (act_bytes(n, 640)), down into `dm` [n][2560] FP32 at the rows of
+/// `group`.  `n`: the layer's routed rows (tokens * k), which bounds the launch grid.
+void experts(const Batch& b, int n_expert, int64_t n, const void* scratch, const void* xa, const int32_t* src, void* ha,
+             float* dm, void* stream);
+
+}  // namespace strata::prefill::fused

include/strata/prefill/moe_fused_iq.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+// include/strata/prefill/moe_fused_iq.hpp - #136: the fused int8 prompt experts (moe_fused.hpp) for the native GGUF
+// packs (tools/iq_pack.py: an expert is its raw GGUF slices [gate rows | up rows | down rows], formats per layer in
+// expert_layout().fmt), opt-in with the same STRATA_PF_FUSED=1 (NVIDIA sm_80 and newer; sm_75 and HIP: MMQ).
+//
+// The grouping on the GPU (fused::group), the per-expert pointers (fused::Batch: a cache slot or a ring slot, no
+// gather) and the launch shape are the Q2_0 path's.  What differs is the load stage: the i-quant blocks are decoded to
+// int8 in shared memory before the mma (codebook and sign lookups, as llama.cpp's MMQ load_tiles does), with the
+// block's scale per 32 (or per 16: IQ2_XS, IQ2_S, multiplied at m16n8k16) beside them.  The activations and H are
+// int8 per 32 values in their natural order here (quantize_act_native), not the Q2_0 path's permuted one.
+//
+// Covered: gate/up IQ2_XXS, IQ2_XS, IQ2_S, IQ3_XXS, IQ3_S, IQ4_XS; down Q2_0, IQ4_NL - every layer of the IQ2_XS,
+// IQ3_XXS and IQ3_S packs but the IQ1_M ones (which MMQ does not cover either).  Other layers keep MMQ.
+#pragma once
+
+#include "strata/prefill/moe_fused.hpp"
+
+#include <cstddef>
+#include <cstdint>
+
+namespace strata::prefill::fused {
+
+/// One layer's native expert geometry (cpu::NativeFmt's fields the kernels read; n_embd 2560, n_ff 640).
+struct NativeGeom {
+    int gu_type = -1, d_type = -1;    ///< ggml types
+    size_t gu_row = 0, d_row = 0;     ///< bytes per gate/up row and per down row
+    size_t up_off = 0, down_off = 0;  ///< inside the blob
+};
+
+/// enabled() (STRATA_PF_FUSED=1 on sm_80+), and the kernels cover this gate/up and down pair on this device.
+bool native_supported(int gu_type, int d_type);
+
+/// x [rows][cols] FP32 -> `xa` (act_bytes(rows, cols)): int8 per 32 values in natural order, the native kernels' form.
+void quantize_act_native(const float* x, int64_t rows, int64_t cols, void* xa, void* stream);
+
+/// experts() for native blobs: b.blob[e - e0] is the native blob of expert e (gate at 0, up at g.up_off, down at
+/// g.down_off; 2-byte aligned).  `xa` from quantize_act_native; H in `ha` (act_bytes(n, 640)); down into `dm` at the
+/// rows of `group`.
+void experts_native(const Batch& b, const NativeGeom& g, int n_expert, int64_t n, const void* scratch, const void* xa,
+                    const int32_t* src, void* ha, float* dm, void* stream);
+
+}  // namespace strata::prefill::fused

serve/frontend.py

@@ -143,10 +143,27 @@ def _late_system_to_user(messages: list[dict]) -> list[dict]:
     return [dict(m, role="user") if m.get("role") == "system" and i > 0 else m for i, m in enumerate(messages)]
 
 
+def _object_list(value, name: str) -> list[dict]:
+    """#460: a request's "messages" (or a message's "tool_calls") as a list of objects.  Some clients send the array
+    double-encoded, as a JSON string, which used to be iterated character by character and crashed on m.get: such a
+    string is decoded.  Anything that is still not a list of objects is a ValueError, which the server answers with
+    a 400 naming the field.  None (or no field) is an empty list, as a missing field always was."""
+    if value is None:
+        return []
+    if isinstance(value, str):
+        try:
+            value = json.loads(value)
+        except ValueError:
+            raise ValueError(f"{name} must be a list of objects (a string was sent that is not JSON)") from None
+    if not isinstance(value, list) or not all(isinstance(m, dict) for m in value):
+        raise ValueError(f"{name} must be a list of objects")
+    return value
+
+
 def openai_to_messages(req: dict) -> tuple[list[dict], list[dict] | None, dict]:
     """OpenAI Chat Completions -> (template messages, template tools, template kwargs)."""
     messages = []
-    for m in req.get("messages", []):
+    for m in _object_list(req.get("messages"), "messages"):
         role = m.get("role")
         if role == "developer":
             role = "system"
@@ -155,8 +172,10 @@ def openai_to_messages(req: dict) -> tuple[list[dict], list[dict] | None, dict]:
             out["reasoning_content"] = m["reasoning_content"]
         if m.get("tool_calls"):
             calls = []
-            for c in m["tool_calls"]:
+            for c in _object_list(m["tool_calls"], "tool_calls"):
                 fn = c.get("function", c)
+                if not isinstance(fn, dict):
+                    raise ValueError("tool_calls must be a list of objects (each with a \"function\" object)")
                 args = fn.get("arguments")
                 if isinstance(args, str):               # the template requires a mapping, not a JSON string
                     args = json.loads(args) if args.strip() else {}
@@ -186,7 +205,7 @@ def anthropic_to_messages(req: dict, think_unasked: bool = True) -> tuple[list[d
     system = req.get("system")
     if system:
         messages.append({"role": "system", "content": _text_of(system)})
-    for m in req.get("messages", []):
+    for m in _object_list(req.get("messages"), "messages"):
         content = m.get("content")
         if isinstance(content, str):
             messages.append({"role": m["role"], "content": content})

serve/server.py

@@ -34,6 +34,7 @@ import re
 import select
 import signal
 import socket
+import struct
 import subprocess
 import sys
 import tempfile
@@ -65,6 +66,16 @@ CTX_SLACK = 8               # `strata --serve` rejects prompt + max_new + 8 > co
 # token (the Monitor showed five-digit numbers) and then undershoots for the first second of every answer.
 RATE_WINDOW_S = 2.0
 RATE_MIN_SPAN_S = 0.25      # younger than this there is no rate yet: the mean so far, with the span floored here
+# #481: a running request whose engine prints nothing (no T, PP or any other line) for this long has lost step with the
+# server (the engine's main thread waits, untimed, for its next command): the engine is ended and the request fails;
+# the next request starts it again.  The config's "engine_silence_s" sets it (0: wait forever, as before).
+ENGINE_SILENCE_S = 300.0
+# ... except while a prompt is read: a PP line comes once per chunk (up to 32768 tokens with --prefill auto, issue
+# #282), and the slowest PCs read ~100 tok/s, so a first chunk can take minutes before the first line.  Until the first
+# PP the wait adds the chunk's tokens at PP_FLOOR_TOK_S; after one, a chunk may take PP_SLACK x the last one's time.
+PP_CHUNK_MAX = 32768
+PP_FLOOR_TOK_S = 50.0
+PP_SLACK = 3.0
 
 
 # ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ engines
@@ -112,6 +123,12 @@ class ModelBusy(RuntimeError):
     """Explicit model controls must not interrupt active or queued requests."""
 
 
+class EngineSilent(EngineDied):
+    """#481: the engine said nothing for too long during a request (or never acknowledged a STOP): the two sides lost
+    step - the engine waiting for its next command, the server for this request's end - and the server ended it.  An
+    EngineDied, so the request ends with an error and the next one starts the engine again."""
+
+
 class EngineStuck(RuntimeError):
     """The engine process did not end after QUIT, terminate and kill: the server keeps it (and says so) rather than
     reporting its GPU and RAM as given back."""
@@ -123,12 +140,60 @@ class GpuBusy(RuntimeError):
 
 
 ENGINE_REQUEST = re.compile(
-    r"prompt (?P<prompt>\d+) tokens = (?P<reused>\d+) reused \+ \d+ read in (?P<read>[\d.]+) ms \((?P<pp>[\d.]+) tok/s\), "
+    # "+ 12288 of 98179 read": a request cancelled while its prompt was read (#471)
+    r"prompt (?P<prompt>\d+) tokens = (?P<reused>\d+) reused \+ \d+(?: of \d+)? read in (?P<read>[\d.]+) ms "
+    r"\((?P<pp>[\d.]+) tok/s\), "
     r"(?P<gen>\d+) generated in (?P<gen_ms>[\d.]+) ms \((?P<tg>[\d.]+) tok/s\)")
 
 
 _echoing: set[str] = set()      # the logs echo_requests already follows (restart() runs StrataEngine.__init__ again)
 
+DRAFT_HEAD_FAIL = "the draft head does not fit"
+DRAFT_HEAD_HINT = ("a smaller draft vocabulary needs less VRAM: --draft-vocab cyrillic (English, code and the Cyrillic "
+                   "script) or --draft-vocab en (English and code, ~215 MiB less than the default). Start once with "
+                   "it - START-HERE.bat --draft-vocab en (Windows) or ./setup.sh --draft-vocab en - and the model "
+                   "keeps it; or a smaller --context in setup.")
+
+
+def start_failure_hint(log: str | None, offset: int) -> str:
+    """#474: what to change when the engine stopped at the start because the MTP draft head did not fit the VRAM
+    left: the engine's own `strata mtp:` lines after that failure (0.1.36+: what it needs, what is free, the smaller
+    subsets), else the same advice in words for an older engine.  "" for any other failure: the log says why."""
+    if not log:
+        return ""
+    try:
+        with open(log, "rb") as f:
+            f.seek(offset)
+            text = f.read().decode("utf-8", "replace")
+    except (OSError, ValueError):
+        return ""
+    if DRAFT_HEAD_FAIL not in text:
+        return ""
+    said = [x.strip()[len("strata mtp: "):] for x in text.splitlines()
+            if x.strip().startswith("strata mtp: ") and ("draft head over" in x or "hint:" in x)]
+    return ". mtp: " + DRAFT_HEAD_FAIL + ". " + (" ".join(said) if said else "Hint: " + DRAFT_HEAD_HINT)
+
+
+def start_log_tail(log: str | None, offset: int, n: int = 20) -> str:
+    """#496: the last n lines this start wrote to the engine log, for the error when the engine ended before READY -
+    whatever the failure, the engine's own reason is in them (people posted the traceback without the log).  "" when
+    there is no log or nothing in it from this start."""
+    if not log:
+        return ""
+    try:
+        with open(log, "rb") as f:
+            f.seek(0, 2)
+            start = max(offset, f.tell() - 64 * 1024)   # enough for 20 lines, never an earlier start's
+            f.seek(start)
+            text = f.read().decode("utf-8", "replace")
+    except (OSError, ValueError):
+        return ""
+    lines = text.splitlines()[1 if start > offset else 0:]   # not a line cut in half
+    lines = [x.rstrip() for x in lines if x.strip()][-n:]
+    if not lines:
+        return ""
+    return "\nthe engine log's last lines:\n" + "\n".join("  " + x for x in lines)
+
 
 def echo_requests(log_path: str, offset: int) -> None:
     """STRATA_REQUEST_LINES=1: one stdout line per finished request, from the engine's own summary in its log.
@@ -153,6 +218,27 @@ def echo_requests(log_path: str, offset: int) -> None:
                                                  m["tg"]), flush=True)
 
 
+def experts_loading_words(args: list, size: str) -> str:
+    """#505: what the start does with the experts, by the engine's flags (generate.cpp's option parsing): a RAM budget
+    copies the hottest N GiB into RAM (--resident-budget-gib), the resident low-RAM mode the ones the GPU does not hold
+    (--resident-experts), plain --mmap-experts reads them from the model files through the OS file cache (nothing is
+    loaded into RAM up front); otherwise all of them go into RAM."""
+    if "--resident-budget-gib" in args:
+        try:
+            n = f"up to {float(args[args.index('--resident-budget-gib') + 1]):g} GiB"
+        except (IndexError, ValueError):
+            n = "a RAM budget"
+        return (f"loading the most-used experts into RAM ({n}; the rest are read from the model files as needed) "
+                "and locking part of them for the GPU.")
+    if "--resident-experts" in args:
+        return (f"loading the experts the GPU does not hold into RAM (of {size}) and locking part of them for the "
+                "GPU.")
+    if "--mmap-experts" in args:
+        return (f"mapping the experts from the model files ({size}, --mmap-experts): they are not loaded into RAM - "
+                "the OS file cache reads them as the GPU's expert cache fills and as requests need them.")
+    return f"loading the experts into RAM ({size}) and locking part of them for the GPU."
+
+
 def narrate_start(log_path: str, offset: int, args: list, done: threading.Event, heartbeat=20.0) -> None:
     """While the engine starts, say in the server window what it is doing, from its log: the start reads tens of GB
     into RAM and locks part of it for the GPU, and on many PCs everything is slow or frozen for a minute or more -
@@ -164,6 +250,7 @@ def narrate_start(log_path: str, offset: int, args: list, done: threading.Event,
         except (OSError, IndexError):
             pass
     size = f"about {gb:.0f} GB" if gb >= 1 else "tens of GB"
+    loading = experts_loading_words(args, size)
     t0 = last = time.time()
     said = set()
 
@@ -187,8 +274,8 @@ def narrate_start(log_path: str, offset: int, args: list, done: threading.Event,
             cut = chunk.rfind(b"\n") + 1
             pos += cut
             for line in chunk[:cut].decode("utf-8", "replace").splitlines():
-                if "PLE on" in line or "expert arena:" in line:
-                    say("arena", f"[strata] loading the experts into RAM ({size}) and locking part of them for the GPU.\n"
+                if "PLE on" in line or "expert arena:" in line or "experts via mmap" in line:   # #505: mapped
+                    say("arena", f"[strata] {loading}\n"
                                  "         YOUR PC CAN BE SLOW OR STOP RESPONDING FOR 1-3 MINUTES NOW - this is normal.\n"
                                  "         Please wait and don't close this window; the browser opens when it is ready.")
                 elif " loaded " in line and "GiB at" in line:
@@ -212,6 +299,8 @@ class StrataEngine:
     (`temperature=F top_p=F top_k=N seed=N`, the engine's own spelling).  An absent temperature keeps the
     engine's default, which is greedy; `temperature=0` means the same thing, so it is not forwarded.
     """
+    silence_s = ENGINE_SILENCE_S         # #481: main() sets the config's engine_silence_s (survives restart())
+    silent_note = None                   # #481: why the server ended a silent engine (death_note says it)
 
     def __init__(self, exe: str, args: list[str], cwd: str | None = None, log: str | None = None,
                  env: dict | None = None, lazy: bool = False):
@@ -227,7 +316,8 @@ class StrataEngine:
         self.info = {}                   # INFO key=value facts (engine 0.1.8+): kv, expert slots, ... (Monitor tab)
         self.prefill_tok_s_mean = None
         self.progress = None             # (read, total) prompt tokens while a prompt is read, from PP lines
-        try:                             # a ready-made engine's BUILD.json says its version
+        self.silent_note = None
+        try:                            # a ready-made engine's BUILD.json says its version
             self.info["version"] = json.loads((Path(exe).parent / "BUILD.json").read_text()).get("version")
         except (OSError, ValueError):
             self.info["version"] = None
@@ -236,6 +326,7 @@ class StrataEngine:
         self.unloaded = False            # `ended` stays True until READY (below): not alive while starting (#344)
         self.log = open(log, "a", encoding="utf-8") if log else subprocess.DEVNULL
         loading = threading.Event()                     # set once READY: the narrator below stops
+        log_start = os.path.getsize(log) if log else 0  # where this start's lines begin (start_failure_hint)
         if log:
             threading.Thread(target=narrate_start, args=(log, os.path.getsize(log), args, loading),
                              daemon=True).start()
@@ -259,7 +350,16 @@ class StrataEngine:
                 break
         loading.set()
         if self.max_context <= 0:
-            raise RuntimeError("the engine exited before it was ready" + (f" (see {log})" if log else ""))
+            try:                                        # its pipes and our handle on its log (the log stays)
+                self.proc.wait(timeout=5)
+                self.proc.stdin.close()
+                self.proc.stdout.close()
+                if log:
+                    self.log.close()
+            except (OSError, subprocess.TimeoutExpired):
+                pass
+            raise RuntimeError("the engine exited before it was ready" + (f" (see {log})" if log else "") +
+                               start_failure_hint(log, log_start) + start_log_tail(log, log_start))
         # (from PR #41, midhatn) a locally built engine can sit next to another release's BUILD.json: engines that
         # report their own version (INFO engine=, 0.1.8+) win, the manifest stays the fallback for older ones
         if self.info.get("engine"):
@@ -280,6 +380,8 @@ class StrataEngine:
 
     def death_note(self) -> str:
         """Why the engine most likely ended, from the end of its log: its own watchdog (issue #29), else RAM."""
+        if getattr(self, "silent_note", None):          # #481: the server ended it, not the OS or the engine itself
+            return self.silent_note
         tail = ""
         try:
             with open(self.log_path, "rb") as f:
@@ -338,6 +440,8 @@ class StrataEngine:
             self.last.update(hits=int(f[9]), lookups=int(f[10]))
         if len(f) >= 14:                                  # the expert tiers (engine 0.1.31+): RAM / file blobs, file MB
             self.last.update(ram_blobs=int(f[11]), file_blobs=int(f[12]), file_mb=float(f[13]))
+        if len(f) >= 15:                                  # #471 (engine 0.1.36+): the prompt tokens actually read
+            self.last.update(prompt_read=int(f[14]))
 
     @staticmethod
     def sampling_keys(sampling: dict) -> str:
@@ -408,19 +512,34 @@ class StrataEngine:
         except OSError:                                  # the pipe is gone: the engine died (not the client)
             raise EngineDied(f"the engine stopped unexpectedly (exit code {self.exit_code()})") from None
         done = False
+        # #481: how long the engine may stay silent from here.  Until the first line: the request's first prompt
+        # chunk at the slowest prompt reading on top of silence_s; a PP line resets it to its own chunk's time.
+        silence = float(self.silence_s or 0)
+        allow = silence + min(len(ids), PP_CHUNK_MAX) / PP_FLOOR_TOK_S if silence > 0 else 0.0
+        heard, read_to = time.monotonic(), 0
         try:
             while True:
+                wait = 10.0
+                if allow > 0:
+                    wait = min(wait, allow - (time.monotonic() - heard))
+                    if wait <= 0:
+                        done = True                       # no STOP and no drain: nothing is listening
+                        raise self._silent(f"the engine said nothing for {time.monotonic() - heard:.0f} s during "
+                                           "the request")
                 try:
-                    line = self.lines.get(timeout=10)
+                    line = self.lines.get(timeout=wait)
                 except queue.Empty:
                     if cancel.is_set():
                         return
-                    yield None
+                    if wait >= 10.0:
+                        yield None                        # the 10 s heartbeat (the deadline's short waits are not)
                     continue
                 if line is None:
                     done = True
                     raise EngineDied(f"the engine stopped unexpectedly (exit code {self.exit_code()})")
+                heard = time.monotonic()                  # any line is output: T, PP, RESUME, INFO ...
                 if line.startswith("T "):
+                    allow = silence
                     if cancel.is_set():
                         return
                     yield int(line[2:])
@@ -429,9 +548,18 @@ class StrataEngine:
                     if len(f) >= 3 and f[1].isdigit() and f[2].isdigit():
                         self.progress = (int(f[1]), int(f[2]))             # prompt progress, one per chunk: also a heartbeat (the
                         self.prefill_tok_s_mean = float(f[4]) if len(f) >= 5 else None
+                        rate, chunk = self.prefill_tok_s_mean or 0.0, int(f[1]) - read_to
+                        read_to = int(f[1])
+                        if silence > 0 and rate > 0 and chunk > 0:   # #481: the next chunk, as long as this one
+                            allow = max(silence, PP_SLACK * chunk / rate)
                     if cancel.is_set():                   # lines reset the 10 s wait, so without this a long prompt
                         return                            # would send no keep-alives at all)
                     yield None
+                elif line.startswith("RESUME "):          # the reused tokens: the first chunk starts after them
+                    try:
+                        read_to = int(line.split()[1])
+                    except (IndexError, ValueError):
+                        pass
                 elif line.startswith("DONE"):
                     self._parse_done(line)
                     done = True
@@ -447,13 +575,41 @@ class StrataEngine:
                         self.proc.stdin.flush()
                     except OSError:
                         pass
+                # #481: never an untimed wait here - it holds the request FIFO, and an engine that lost step never
+                # answers.  An engine that honours STOP gets the current allowance in all (a STOP during a prompt
+                # chunk is seen after it); an older one runs on to max_new, so each line only has to come in time.
+                heard = time.monotonic()
                 while True:
-                    line = self.lines.get()
+                    left = allow - (time.monotonic() - heard) if allow > 0 else None
+                    try:
+                        if left is not None and left <= 0:
+                            raise queue.Empty
+                        line = self.lines.get(timeout=left)
+                    except queue.Empty:
+                        raise self._silent("the engine did not finish the request after it was stopped (STOP) "
+                                           f"within {allow:.0f} s") from None
                     if line is None or line.startswith("ERR"):
                         break
                     if line.startswith("DONE"):
                         self._parse_done(line)
                         break
+                    if not self.can_stop:
+                        heard = time.monotonic()
+
+    def _silent(self, what: str) -> EngineSilent:
+        """#481: end an engine that lost step with the server (its main thread waits for a command the server never
+        sends), so the next request starts it again: killed now, its GPU and RAM go back with the process."""
+        self.silent_note = ("The engine and the server lost step (issue #481; a very slow PC can raise "
+                            "\"engine_silence_s\" in the config, 0 = wait forever). If it happens again, please add "
+                            "the end of the engine log to github.com/Niko1221/Strata/issues/481.")
+        self.ended = True                               # not alive from now: the next request restarts it
+        proc = self.proc
+        try:
+            proc.kill()
+            proc.wait(timeout=20)                       # restart() -> close() handles one that is still exiting
+        except (OSError, AttributeError, subprocess.TimeoutExpired):
+            pass
+        return EngineSilent(f"{what}; the server ended the engine")
 
     def close(self):
         """End the engine process: QUIT first (the engine frees its memory itself - unpinning tens of GB can take
@@ -621,6 +777,17 @@ def gpu_list(cfg: dict) -> list[int]:
     return [int(str(x).strip()) for x in items if str(x).strip() != ""]
 
 
+def engine_silence_s(cfg: dict) -> float:
+    """#481: the config's "engine_silence_s" - seconds an engine may print nothing during a request before the server
+    ends it (default ENGINE_SILENCE_S; 0 = wait forever).  ValueError for anything but a number >= 0."""
+    v = cfg.get("engine_silence_s")
+    if v is None:
+        return ENGINE_SILENCE_S
+    if isinstance(v, bool) or not isinstance(v, (int, float)) or v < 0:
+        raise ValueError(f'"engine_silence_s" must be a number of seconds >= 0 (0 = no limit), not {v!r}')
+    return float(v)
+
+
 def engine_args(cfg: dict) -> list[str]:
     """The engine's arguments: the config's, and with several GPUs the layer split across them ("layer_split" in the
     config: "auto" by default, or the first layer of each later GPU's share, e.g. "18" or "16,32")."""
@@ -630,6 +797,44 @@ def engine_args(cfg: dict) -> list[str]:
     # opt-in: an auto split runs on the first card alone when it holds every profiled expert and the KV
     if len(gpu_list(cfg)) > 1 and cfg.get("split_skip_if_fits") and "--split-skip-if-fits" not in args:
         args.append("--split-skip-if-fits")
+    return learned_profile_args(cfg, args)
+
+
+def profile_shape(path: str) -> tuple[int, int] | None:
+    """An expert profile's (layers, experts per layer), from its header (tools/make_profile.py's format), or None
+    when the file is missing, is not one or is shorter than the pairs its header promises."""
+    try:
+        with open(path, "rb") as f:
+            head = f.read(24)
+            size = os.fstat(f.fileno()).st_size
+    except OSError:
+        return None
+    if len(head) < 24 or head[:4] != b"STRP":
+        return None
+    _, nl, ne, _, n = struct.unpack("<5I", head[4:])
+    return (nl, ne) if size >= 24 + 4 * n else None
+
+
+def learned_profile_args(cfg: dict, args: list[str]) -> list[str]:
+    """#477 (opt-in): "expert_profile_save": "<path>" in the config has the engine (0.1.36+) save what its adaptive
+    tier learned there - on QUIT and every "expert_profile_save_every" minutes (10 by default, 0 = at QUIT only) -
+    and the next start begins from it instead of the config's --expert-profile, when it is a profile of the same
+    model (its header's layers and experts match); otherwise from the config's own, as before.  A relative path is
+    the engine's (the config's "cwd").  Without the key, the arguments are the config's, unchanged."""
+    save = cfg.get("expert_profile_save")
+    if not isinstance(save, str) or not save.strip() or "--expert-profile-save" in args:
+        return args
+    args = args + ["--expert-profile-save", save]
+    every = cfg.get("expert_profile_save_every")
+    if isinstance(every, (int, float)) and not isinstance(every, bool) and every >= 0:
+        args += ["--expert-profile-save-every", str(every)]
+    if "--expert-profile" in args[:-1]:
+        i = args.index("--expert-profile") + 1
+        here = cfg.get("cwd") or "."
+        learned = profile_shape(save if os.path.isabs(save) else os.path.join(here, save))
+        base = profile_shape(args[i] if os.path.isabs(args[i]) else os.path.join(here, args[i]))
+        if learned is not None and learned == base:
+            args[i] = save
     return args
 
 
@@ -765,7 +970,8 @@ class Service:
         self.history = collections.deque(maxlen=500)    # the last finished requests, newest last (GET /metrics)
         # since the server started (the Monitor's totals, issue #35)
         self.totals = {"since": time.time(), "requests": 0, "prompt_tokens": 0, "reused": 0, "output_tokens": 0,
-                       "prompt_ms": 0.0, "decode_ms": 0.0}
+                       "prompt_ms": 0.0, "decode_ms": 0.0,
+                       "drafts_offered": 0, "drafts_accepted": 0}   # #457: the MTP drafts, summed where reported
         self.last_timings = None                         # the last finished request's, llama.cpp's names (/v1/status)
         self.last_request_at = None                      # when a request last started or finished
         self.started_at = time.time()
@@ -878,6 +1084,13 @@ class Service:
         self.engine.restart()
         print("[strata] the engine is running again", flush=True)
 
+    def _say_died(self, e: Exception) -> None:
+        """The server window's line for an engine that died (or was ended, #481) in the middle of a request."""
+        note = self.engine.death_note() if hasattr(self.engine, "death_note") else ""
+        log = getattr(self.engine, "log_path", None)
+        print(f"[strata] {e}. {note} The next request starts the engine again."
+              f"{' Its log: ' + log if log else ''}", flush=True)
+
     def load(self):
         """POST /load and every generation request: start the engine now if it is unloaded (raises GpuBusy)."""
         # a request is on its way: the idle thread must not unload between this and the request's own start
@@ -1248,7 +1461,7 @@ class Service:
                     while True:
                         gen = self.engine.generate(prompt, max_new - n, sampling, cancel, embeddings=emb) if emb \
                             else self.engine.generate(prompt, max_new - n, sampling, cancel)
-                        seg, wrap = [], False           # this pass's tokens; the budget is reached
+                        seg, wrap, leaving = [], False, False   # this pass's tokens; the budget is reached; closed
                         try:
                             for t in gen:
                                 if t is None:               # heartbeat while the engine is quiet
@@ -1278,19 +1491,25 @@ class Service:
                                         break
                         except EngineDied as e:
                             finish = "error"
-                            note = self.engine.death_note() if hasattr(self.engine, "death_note") else ""
-                            log = getattr(self.engine, "log_path", None)
-                            print(f"[strata] {e}. {note} The next request starts the engine again."
-                                  f"{' Its log: ' + log if log else ''}", flush=True)
+                            self._say_died(e)
                             raise
                         except ValueError as e:             # the engine's ERR line (it may have ended after it)
                             finish = "error"
                             print(f"[strata] the engine reported an error: {e}", flush=True)
                             raise
+                        except GeneratorExit:               # the client went away: an engine that never acknowledges
+                            leaving = True                  # the STOP below is ended, but no error replaces this
+                            raise
                         finally:
-                            gen.close()                 # STOP+drain to THIS request's DONE while still holding the
-                            #                             fifo, so a stop-token break can't leave the shared engine
-                            #                             queue mid-drain for the next request to read as its own DONE
+                            try:
+                                gen.close()             # STOP+drain to THIS request's DONE while still holding the
+                                #                         fifo, so a stop-token break can't leave the shared engine
+                                #                         queue mid-drain for the next request to read as its own DONE
+                            except EngineSilent as e:   # #481: the STOP was never acknowledged: the engine is ended
+                                finish = "error"
+                                self._say_died(e)
+                                if not leaving and not cancel.is_set():
+                                    raise
                         if not wrap or cancel.is_set():
                             break
                         # #123: the thinking reached reasoning_budget_tokens.  Close it the way the model would (a
@@ -1328,27 +1547,35 @@ class Service:
                             cvec = (getattr(self.engine, "info", {}) or {}).get("cvec", 0)
                             loaded = str(cvec) not in ("0", "", "None")
                             hit_rate = round(last["hits"] / last["lookups"], 3) if last.get("lookups") else None
+                            seen = prompt_tokens_seen(len(ids), last)   # #471: < len(ids) when cancelled mid-read
                             self.history.append({
                                 "projection": (sampling or {}).get("experimental_speed_projection") is not False
                                 if loaded else None,
                                 "time": started, "duration_s": round(time.time() - started, 1), "finish": finish,
-                                "prompt_tokens": len(ids), "reused": last.get("reused"), "output_tokens": n,
+                                "prompt_tokens": seen, "reused": last.get("reused"), "output_tokens": n,
+                                # the request's whole prompt, and the tokens read of it (None: an older engine)
+                                "prompt_total": len(ids), "prompt_read": last.get("prompt_read"),
                                 "engine_generated": last.get("generated"),
                                 "prompt_ms": last.get("prompt_ms"), "decode_ms": last.get("decode_ms"),
                                 "decode_tok_s": round(last["generated"] / (last["decode_ms"] / 1000), 1)
                                 if n and last.get("generated") and last.get("decode_ms") else None,
                                 "hit_rate": hit_rate, "ram_blobs": last.get("ram_blobs"),
-                                "file_blobs": last.get("file_blobs"), "file_mb": last.get("file_mb")})
+                                "file_blobs": last.get("file_blobs"), "file_mb": last.get("file_mb"),
+                                # #457: the speculative drafts from the DONE line (None: the engine did not say)
+                                "drafts_offered": last.get("drafts_offered"),
+                                "drafts_accepted": last.get("drafts_accepted")})
                             t = self.totals
                             t["requests"] += 1
-                            t["prompt_tokens"] += len(ids)
+                            t["prompt_tokens"] += seen
                             t["reused"] += last.get("reused") or 0
                             t["output_tokens"] += n
                             t["prompt_ms"] += last.get("prompt_ms") or 0.0
                             t["decode_ms"] += last.get("decode_ms") or 0.0
+                            t["drafts_offered"] += last.get("drafts_offered") or 0
+                            t["drafts_accepted"] += last.get("drafts_accepted") or 0
                             fresh = getattr(self.engine, "last", None)
                             if fresh is not None and fresh is not before:      # the engine's clock for THIS request
-                                timings = request_timings(len(ids), n, last)
+                                timings = request_timings(seen, n, last)
                                 self.last_timings = dict(timings, at=int(time.time())) if timings else None
                             self.last_request_at = time.time()
                             now = time.time()
@@ -1372,6 +1599,17 @@ class Service:
                        "timings": timings}
 
 
+def prompt_tokens_seen(prompt_tokens: int, last: dict) -> int:
+    """#471: the prompt tokens a request got through - all of them, unless the engine's DONE line says a cancel stopped
+    its prompt read part-way (then the reused ones plus those read).  /metrics' history and totals count these, so a
+    cancelled read is neither recorded as the whole prompt nor given a rate from tokens it never read.  An engine
+    before 0.1.36 does not say (no `prompt_read`): the whole prompt, as before."""
+    read = last.get("prompt_read")
+    if read is None or last.get("finish") != "cancel":
+        return prompt_tokens
+    return min(prompt_tokens, int(last.get("reused") or 0) + int(read))
+
+
 def request_timings(prompt_tokens: int, generated: int, last: dict) -> dict | None:
     """One request's `timings` in llama.cpp's names (what its clients show as speed), from the engine's own clock
     (StrataEngine.last): prompt_n is what was read, cache_n what the conversation cache already held.  None when the
@@ -2487,7 +2725,12 @@ def main() -> int:
         # a relative "exe" is the config's cwd's: Windows' CreateProcess resolves "engine/strata.exe" against nothing
         # it is told about (WinError 2), so it is made absolute here
         exe = cfg["exe"] if os.path.isabs(cfg["exe"]) else os.path.abspath(os.path.join(cfg.get("cwd") or ".", cfg["exe"]))
+        try:
+            silence = engine_silence_s(cfg)             # #481: checked before the (minutes-long) start
+        except ValueError as e:
+            raise SystemExit(f"[strata] config {e}")
         engine = StrataEngine(exe, engine_args(cfg), cwd=cfg.get("cwd"), log=cfg.get("log"), env=env, lazy=lazy)
+        engine.silence_s = silence                      # an attribute of its own: restart() keeps it
         warn_tight_ram(engine.info.get("arena_mib"))
     else:
         engine, vision, sampling_defaults = MockEngine(tok, a.script or [

serve/test_server.py

@@ -18,7 +18,9 @@ from unittest import mock
 
 sys.path.insert(0, str(Path(__file__).resolve().parents[1]))
 from serve.frontend import ChatTemplate  # noqa: E402
-from serve.server import CTX_SLACK, ByteTokenizer, EngineDied, GpuBusy, MockEngine, Service, StrataEngine, request_timings, serve  # noqa: E402
+from serve.server import (CTX_SLACK, ByteTokenizer, EngineDied, GpuBusy, MockEngine, Service, StrataEngine,  # noqa: E402
+                          engine_args, prompt_tokens_seen, request_timings, serve, start_failure_hint)
+from types import SimpleNamespace  # noqa: E402
 
 ROOT = Path(__file__).resolve().parents[1]
 CTX = 4096
@@ -95,6 +97,13 @@ class MaxTokens(unittest.TestCase):
         m = ENGINE_REQUEST.search(line)
         self.assertIsNotNone(m)
         self.assertEqual((m["prompt"], m["reused"], m["gen"], m["tg"]), ("1200", "1000", "30", "100.0"))
+        # #471: a request cancelled while its prompt was read says how far it got
+        m = ENGINE_REQUEST.search("strata serve: prompt 98179 tokens = 0 reused + 12288 of 98179 read in 17565 ms "
+                                  "(699.6 tok/s), 0 generated in 0 ms (0.0 tok/s), drafts accepted 0 of 0, "
+                                  "0 checkpoints (cancelled)")
+        self.assertIsNotNone(m)
+        self.assertEqual((m["prompt"], m["reused"], m["read"], m["pp"], m["gen"]),
+                         ("98179", "0", "17565", "699.6", "0"))
 
     def test_unset_budget_is_the_rest_of_the_context(self):
         cases = {"openai": [{"max_tokens": -1}, {"max_tokens": 0}, {}, {"max_tokens": None},
@@ -474,6 +483,18 @@ class ClientShapes(unittest.TestCase):
                                                        "messages": [{"role": "user", "content": "hi"}]})
         self.assertEqual(status, 200, b)                            # the server goes on
 
+    def test_messages_as_a_json_string_over_http(self):
+        # #460: a double-encoded "messages" is answered; one that is not a list of objects is a 400, not a 500
+        encoded = json.dumps([{"role": "user", "content": "1+1?"}])
+        for path in ("/v1/chat/completions", "/v1/messages"):
+            with self.subTest(path=path):
+                status, b = self.post(path, {"model": "x", "max_tokens": 20, "messages": encoded})
+                self.assertEqual(status, 200, b)
+                self.assertIn("1+1?", self.prompt_text())
+                status, b = self.post(path, {"model": "x", "max_tokens": 20, "messages": ["hi"]})
+                self.assertEqual(status, 400, b)
+                self.assertIn("messages must be a list of objects", b["error"]["message"])
+
     def test_vision_temp_image_removed_when_the_pipe_fails(self):
         # #352: the temporary image goes even when the encoder's pipe raises
         from serve.server import Vision
@@ -499,6 +520,32 @@ class ClientShapes(unittest.TestCase):
         msgs, _, _ = anthropic_to_messages({"system": "S", "messages": [{"role": "user", "content": "u"}]})
         self.assertEqual([m["role"] for m in msgs], ["system", "user"])
 
+    def test_messages_sent_as_a_json_string(self):
+        # #460: a client that double-encodes "messages" (and "tool_calls") as a JSON string gets them decoded; what is
+        # still not a list of objects is a ValueError (the server's 400), not an AttributeError on m.get
+        from serve.frontend import anthropic_to_messages, openai_to_messages
+        call = [{"id": "c1", "type": "function", "function": {"name": "f", "arguments": "{\"x\": 1}"}}]
+        listed = [{"role": "user", "content": "u"}, {"role": "assistant", "content": "", "tool_calls": call}]
+        encoded = [listed[0], dict(listed[1], tool_calls=json.dumps(call))]
+        want = openai_to_messages({"messages": listed})[0]
+        self.assertEqual(want[1]["tool_calls"], [{"function": {"name": "f", "arguments": {"x": 1}}}])
+        self.assertEqual(openai_to_messages({"messages": json.dumps(listed)})[0], want)
+        self.assertEqual(openai_to_messages({"messages": json.dumps(encoded)})[0], want)
+        anth = [{"role": "user", "content": "u"}]
+        self.assertEqual(anthropic_to_messages({"messages": json.dumps(anth)})[0],
+                         anthropic_to_messages({"messages": anth})[0])
+        self.assertEqual(openai_to_messages({})[0], [])                     # no field: nothing, as before
+        self.assertEqual(openai_to_messages({"messages": None})[0], [])
+        for bad in ("not json", "\"a string\"", json.dumps({"role": "user"}), ["hi"], [{"role": "user"}, 3], 5,
+                    {"role": "user", "content": "u"}):
+            for fn in (openai_to_messages, anthropic_to_messages):
+                with self.subTest(bad=bad, fn=fn.__name__):
+                    with self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, "messages must be a list of objects"):
+                        fn({"messages": bad})
+        for calls in (["f"], "[1]", [{"function": "f"}], "{"):
+            with self.subTest(calls=calls), self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, "tool_calls must be a list of objects"):
+                openai_to_messages({"messages": [{"role": "assistant", "content": "", "tool_calls": calls}]})
+
 
 class SamplingKeys(unittest.TestCase):
     """The GEN line's sampling keys: top_k 0 ("off") or wider than the engine's 64 get the widest list, 64 (they used
@@ -709,6 +756,259 @@ class EngineDeath(unittest.TestCase):
             httpd.server_close()
 
 
+class DoneLineEngine(MockEngine):
+    """The mock engine whose `last` comes from a DONE line, parsed as StrataEngine parses it."""
+
+    def __init__(self, *a, done_lines=(), **kw):
+        super().__init__(*a, **kw)
+        self.done_lines = list(done_lines)
+
+    def generate(self, ids, max_new, sampling, cancel, embeddings=None):
+        try:
+            yield from super().generate(ids, max_new, sampling, cancel, embeddings)
+        finally:
+            StrataEngine._parse_done(self, self.done_lines.pop(0))
+
+
+class DraftCounts(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#457: GET /metrics gives each request's speculative draft counts (offered / accepted, from the engine's DONE
+    line; None when the line has no such fields) and their running sums in the totals."""
+
+    def test_drafts_in_history_and_totals(self):
+        tok = ByteTokenizer()
+        engine = DoneLineEngine(tok, "</think>\n\nok", max_context=CTX, done_lines=[
+            "DONE 4 20 40.0 30.0 stop 7 12 0",                  # 7 of 12 drafts accepted
+            "DONE 4 20 40.0 30.0 stop",                          # an engine that reports no drafts
+            "DONE 4 20 40.0 30.0 stop 3 5 0 9 10"])
+        svc = Service(engine, tok, ChatTemplate(ROOT / "serve/chat_template.jinja"))
+        self.assertEqual((svc.totals["drafts_offered"], svc.totals["drafts_accepted"]), (0, 0))
+        httpd = serve(svc, port=0)
+        base = f"http://127.0.0.1:{httpd.server_address[1]}"
+        try:
+            for _ in range(3):
+                body = json.dumps({"model": "m", "max_tokens": 10, "messages": [{"role": "user", "content": "hi"}]})
+                with urllib.request.urlopen(urllib.request.Request(base + "/v1/chat/completions", data=body.encode(),
+                                                                   headers={"Content-Type": "application/json"}),
+                                            timeout=30) as r:
+                    self.assertEqual(r.status, 200)
+            with urllib.request.urlopen(base + "/metrics", timeout=10) as r:
+                m = json.loads(r.read())
+        finally:
+            httpd.shutdown()
+            httpd.server_close()
+        rows = m["requests"]                                      # newest first
+        self.assertEqual([(r["drafts_offered"], r["drafts_accepted"]) for r in rows], [(5, 3), (None, None), (12, 7)])
+        self.assertEqual((m["totals"]["drafts_offered"], m["totals"]["drafts_accepted"]), (17, 10))
+
+
+class LearnedProfile(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#477: "expert_profile_save" in the config: the engine saves its learned profile there, and the next start
+    begins from it when it is a profile of the same model; without the key the arguments are unchanged."""
+
+    def write(self, path, nl=48, ne=512, n=4):
+        sys.path.insert(0, str(ROOT / "tools"))
+        import make_profile
+        old = make_profile.N_LAYER
+        make_profile.N_LAYER = nl
+        try:
+            make_profile.write_profile(path, [(i % nl, i // nl) for i in range(n)], n_expert=ne)
+        finally:
+            make_profile.N_LAYER = old
+
+    def test_without_the_key_nothing_changes(self):
+        args = ["--native", "x", "--expert-profile", "data/expert-profile.bin", "--adapt-every", "4"]
+        self.assertEqual(engine_args({"args": list(args)}), args)
+        self.assertEqual(engine_args({"args": list(args), "expert_profile_save": ""}), args)
+
+    def test_save_and_start_from_it(self):
+        d = Path(tempfile.mkdtemp())
+        self.write(d / "base.bin")
+        cfg = {"args": ["--expert-profile", "base.bin"], "cwd": str(d), "expert_profile_save": "learned.bin",
+               "expert_profile_save_every": 5}
+        # nothing saved yet: the config's profile, and the engine is told where to save
+        self.assertEqual(engine_args(cfg), ["--expert-profile", "base.bin", "--expert-profile-save", "learned.bin",
+                                            "--expert-profile-save-every", "5"])
+        self.write(d / "learned.bin")
+        self.assertEqual(engine_args(cfg)[:2], ["--expert-profile", "learned.bin"])
+        self.write(d / "learned.bin", ne=256)                    # another model's: not used
+        self.assertEqual(engine_args(cfg)[:2], ["--expert-profile", "base.bin"])
+        (d / "learned.bin").write_bytes(b"STRP" + bytes(20))     # not a whole profile
+        self.assertEqual(engine_args(cfg)[:2], ["--expert-profile", "base.bin"])
+        self.write(d / "learned.bin")
+        (d / "learned.bin").write_bytes((d / "learned.bin").read_bytes()[:30])   # truncated
+        self.assertEqual(engine_args(cfg)[:2], ["--expert-profile", "base.bin"])
+
+    def test_no_profile_in_the_args(self):
+        cfg = {"args": ["--native", "x"], "expert_profile_save": "learned.bin"}
+        self.assertEqual(engine_args(cfg), ["--native", "x", "--expert-profile-save", "learned.bin"])
+
+
+class DraftHeadHint(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#474: a start that stopped at "the draft head does not fit" says what to change, from this start's log lines."""
+
+    def log(self, text, before=""):
+        d = tempfile.mkdtemp()
+        p = Path(d) / "engine.log"
+        p.write_text(before + text, encoding="utf-8")
+        return str(p), len(before.encode())
+
+    def test_the_engines_hint_is_relayed(self):
+        p, off = self.log("strata mtp: the draft head over 106299 tokens needs 348 MiB of VRAM and 120 MiB is free.\n"
+                          "strata mtp: hint: a smaller draft vocabulary needs less VRAM: --draft-vocab en (...)\n"
+                          "strata serve: mtp: the draft head does not fit\n")
+        h = start_failure_hint(p, off)
+        self.assertIn("the draft head does not fit", h)
+        self.assertIn("348 MiB", h)
+        self.assertIn("--draft-vocab en", h)
+
+    def test_an_older_engine_gets_the_advice_in_words(self):
+        p, off = self.log("strata serve: mtp: the draft head does not fit\n")
+        self.assertIn("--draft-vocab en", start_failure_hint(p, off))
+
+    def test_other_failures_and_earlier_starts_add_nothing(self):
+        p, off = self.log("strata serve: cannot open the pack\n")
+        self.assertEqual(start_failure_hint(p, off), "")
+        # an earlier start's failure (before this start's offset) is not this one's
+        p, off = self.log("strata serve: cannot open the pack\n",
+                          before="strata serve: mtp: the draft head does not fit\n")
+        self.assertEqual(start_failure_hint(p, off), "")
+        self.assertEqual(start_failure_hint(None, 0), "")
+        self.assertEqual(start_failure_hint(str(Path(tempfile.mkdtemp()) / "missing.log"), 0), "")
+
+
+class StartFailureLog(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#496: whatever stopped the engine before READY, the error carries this start's last log lines."""
+
+    def test_the_last_lines_of_this_start(self):
+        from serve.server import start_log_tail
+        d = tempfile.mkdtemp()
+        p = Path(d) / "engine.log"
+        before = "strata serve: an earlier start's line\n"
+        p.write_text(before + "".join(f"strata serve: line {i}\n" for i in range(30)) + "\n"
+                     "strata serve: cannot open the pack\n", encoding="utf-8")
+        tail = start_log_tail(str(p), len(before.encode()))
+        self.assertIn("the engine log's last lines:", tail)
+        self.assertIn("cannot open the pack", tail)
+        self.assertIn("line 29", tail)
+        self.assertNotIn("line 10\n", tail + "\n")                 # 20 lines: 11..29 and the last one
+        self.assertIn("line 11", tail)
+        self.assertNotIn("earlier start", tail)
+        short = start_log_tail(str(p), len(before.encode()), n=3)
+        self.assertEqual(short.count("\n  "), 3)
+        self.assertEqual(start_log_tail(str(p), p.stat().st_size), "")   # nothing from this start
+        self.assertEqual(start_log_tail(None, 0), "")
+        self.assertEqual(start_log_tail(str(Path(d) / "missing.log"), 0), "")
+
+    def test_the_start_error_has_them(self):
+        import serve.server as server
+        fake = "import sys\nsys.stderr.write('strata serve: cannot open the pack packs/x\\n')\nsys.exit(2)\n"
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            script, log = Path(d) / "fake_strata.py", Path(d) / "strata.log"
+            script.write_text(fake, encoding="utf-8")
+            log.write_text("an earlier start\n", encoding="utf-8")
+            real = server.subprocess.Popen
+            with mock.patch.object(server.subprocess, "Popen",
+                                   lambda cmd, **kw: real([sys.executable, str(script), *cmd[1:]], **kw)), \
+                    mock.patch.object(server, "narrate_start", lambda *a, **k: None):
+                with self.assertRaises(RuntimeError) as cm:
+                    StrataEngine("strata", [], log=str(log))
+            text = str(cm.exception)
+            self.assertIn("exited before it was ready", text)
+            self.assertIn("cannot open the pack packs/x", text)
+            self.assertNotIn("an earlier start", text)
+
+
+class StartNarrator(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#505: the start's words say what happens to the experts - --mmap-experts loads nothing into RAM up front."""
+
+    def test_the_words_follow_the_flags(self):
+        from serve.server import experts_loading_words
+        self.assertIn("loading the experts into RAM (about 38 GB)", experts_loading_words([], "about 38 GB"))
+        mapped = experts_loading_words(["--mmap-experts"], "about 47 GB")
+        self.assertIn("mapping the experts from the model files (about 47 GB", mapped)
+        self.assertIn("not loaded into RAM", mapped)
+        self.assertIn("the GPU does not hold", experts_loading_words(["--resident-experts"], "about 47 GB"))
+        budget = experts_loading_words(["--mmap-experts", "--resident-budget-gib", "71"], "about 50 GB")
+        self.assertIn("up to 71 GiB", budget)
+        self.assertNotIn("about 50 GB", budget)
+
+    def narrate(self, args, lines):
+        import contextlib
+        import io
+        from serve.server import narrate_start
+        d = tempfile.mkdtemp()
+        log = Path(d) / "engine.log"
+        log.write_text("".join(x + "\n" for x in lines), encoding="utf-8")
+        done, out = threading.Event(), io.StringIO()
+        with contextlib.redirect_stdout(out):
+            t = threading.Thread(target=narrate_start, args=(str(log), 0, args, done))
+            t.start()
+            time.sleep(0.8)
+            done.set()
+            t.join(5)
+        return out.getvalue()
+
+    def test_a_mapped_start(self):
+        said = self.narrate(["--mmap-experts"], ["strata generate: experts via mmap (--mmap-experts; the GGUF shards "
+                                                 "in place, no experts.bin)"])
+        self.assertIn("mapping the experts from the model files", said)
+        self.assertNotIn("loading the experts into RAM", said)
+
+    def test_an_arena_start(self):
+        said = self.narrate([], ["strata generate: expert arena: resident, 31.64 GiB",
+                                 "strata generate: loaded 31.64 GiB at 3.17 GiB/s"])
+        self.assertIn("loading the experts into RAM (tens of GB)", said)
+        self.assertIn("experts loaded: 31.64 GiB at 3.17 GiB/s", said)
+
+
+class CancelledRead(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#471: a request cancelled while its prompt was read is recorded with the tokens the engine read (the DONE
+    line's 15th field), not the whole prompt; an older engine's line (no such field) keeps the whole prompt."""
+
+    def test_parse_done_read_field(self):
+        e = SimpleNamespace()
+        StrataEngine._parse_done(e, "DONE 0 98179 17565.0 0.0 cancel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 12288")
+        self.assertEqual((e.last["prompt_tokens"], e.last["prompt_read"], e.last["finish"]), (98179, 12288, "cancel"))
+        StrataEngine._parse_done(e, "DONE 0 98179 17565.0 0.0 cancel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0")
+        self.assertNotIn("prompt_read", e.last)
+
+    def test_prompt_tokens_seen(self):
+        last = {"finish": "cancel", "reused": 1000, "prompt_read": 2000}
+        self.assertEqual(prompt_tokens_seen(98179, last), 3000)
+        self.assertEqual(prompt_tokens_seen(98179, {**last, "finish": "stop"}), 98179)   # read in full: all of it
+        self.assertEqual(prompt_tokens_seen(98179, {"finish": "cancel", "reused": 0}), 98179)   # an older engine
+        self.assertEqual(prompt_tokens_seen(98179, {}), 98179)                          # no DONE at all
+        self.assertEqual(prompt_tokens_seen(10, {**last, "prompt_read": 50}), 10)       # never past the prompt
+
+    def test_history_and_totals(self):
+        tok = ByteTokenizer()
+        engine = DoneLineEngine(tok, "</think>\n\nok", max_context=CTX, done_lines=[
+            "DONE 0 20 400.0 0.0 cancel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 8",      # stopped after 8 prompt tokens
+            "DONE 4 20 40.0 30.0 stop 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 20",
+            "DONE 0 20 400.0 0.0 cancel 0 0 0"])                   # an older engine: no read count
+        svc = Service(engine, tok, ChatTemplate(ROOT / "serve/chat_template.jinja"))
+        httpd = serve(svc, port=0)
+        base = f"http://127.0.0.1:{httpd.server_address[1]}"
+        try:
+            for _ in range(3):
+                body = json.dumps({"model": "m", "max_tokens": 10, "messages": [{"role": "user", "content": "hi"}]})
+                with urllib.request.urlopen(urllib.request.Request(base + "/v1/chat/completions", data=body.encode(),
+                                                                   headers={"Content-Type": "application/json"}),
+                                            timeout=30) as r:
+                    self.assertEqual(r.status, 200)
+            with urllib.request.urlopen(base + "/metrics", timeout=10) as r:
+                m = json.loads(r.read())
+        finally:
+            httpd.shutdown()
+            httpd.server_close()
+        rows = m["requests"][::-1]                                # oldest first
+        total = rows[0]["prompt_total"]
+        self.assertGreater(total, 8)
+        self.assertEqual([r["prompt_total"] for r in rows], [total] * 3)
+        self.assertEqual([(r["prompt_tokens"], r["prompt_read"]) for r in rows], [(8, 8), (total, 20), (total, None)])
+        self.assertEqual(m["totals"]["prompt_tokens"], 8 + 2 * total)
+
+
 class LiveRate(unittest.TestCase):
     """The Monitor's Speed readout: live.tok_s is a rate, and a request that never got a DONE keeps no counters.
 
@@ -1828,5 +2128,163 @@ class AmdTelemetry(unittest.TestCase):
                 self.assertEqual(svc.free_vram_mib(), 26 << 10)
 
 
+class SilentEngine(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#481: an engine that prints nothing for engine_silence_s during a request (or never acknowledges a STOP) has
+    lost step with the server: it is ended and the request fails with EngineDied, instead of waiting forever."""
+
+    def bare(self, silence, can_stop=False):
+        import io
+        import queue
+        engine = StrataEngine.__new__(StrataEngine)
+        engine.proc = mock.Mock()
+        engine.proc.stdin = io.StringIO()
+        engine.proc.poll.return_value = None
+        engine.lines, engine.can_stop, engine.max_context = queue.Queue(), can_stop, 4096
+        engine.silence_s, engine.log_path = silence, None
+        return engine
+
+    def later(self, engine, delay, *lines):
+        def put():
+            time.sleep(delay)
+            for x in lines:
+                engine.lines.put(x)
+        threading.Thread(target=put, daemon=True).start()
+
+    def test_silence_mid_answer_ends_the_engine(self):
+        from serve.server import EngineSilent
+        engine = self.bare(0.3)
+        engine.lines.put("T 5")
+        gen = engine.generate([1], 10, {}, threading.Event())
+        self.assertEqual(next(gen), 5)
+        t0 = time.monotonic()
+        with self.assertRaises(EngineSilent) as cm:
+            next(gen)
+        self.assertIsInstance(cm.exception, EngineDied)          # every EngineDied path handles it
+        self.assertLess(time.monotonic() - t0, 5)
+        engine.proc.kill.assert_called_once()
+        self.assertFalse(engine.alive())                          # the next request restarts it
+        self.assertIn("#481", engine.death_note())
+        self.assertNotIn("STOP", engine.proc.stdin.getvalue())    # nothing is listening: no STOP, no drain
+
+    def test_prompt_chunks_set_the_wait(self):
+        # a PP line every second, at 100 tok/s: far over a 0.3 s silence, but each chunk is on time for its size
+        engine = self.bare(0.3)
+        engine.lines.put("RESUME 0")
+        engine.lines.put("PP 100 300 1000 100.0")
+        self.later(engine, 1.0, "PP 200 300 2000 100.0", "T 7", "DONE 1 300 2000 1 length")
+        self.assertEqual(list(engine.generate([1], 10, {}, threading.Event())), [None, None, 7])
+        engine.proc.kill.assert_not_called()
+
+    def test_a_long_first_chunk_is_allowed(self):
+        # 100 prompt tokens at the slowest prompt reading (50 tok/s): 2 s on top of the silence before the first PP
+        engine = self.bare(0.3)
+        self.later(engine, 1.0, "PP 100 100 1000 100.0", "DONE 0 100 1000 0 length")
+        self.assertEqual(list(engine.generate([1] * 100, 10, {}, threading.Event())), [None])
+        engine.proc.kill.assert_not_called()
+
+    def test_a_stop_never_acknowledged(self):
+        from serve.server import EngineSilent
+        engine = self.bare(0.3, can_stop=True)
+        engine.lines.put("T 5")
+        gen = engine.generate([1], 10, {}, threading.Event())
+        self.assertEqual(next(gen), 5)
+        with self.assertRaises(EngineSilent):
+            gen.close()                                           # the consumer stopped: STOP, then the drain
+        self.assertIn("STOP", engine.proc.stdin.getvalue())
+        engine.proc.kill.assert_called_once()
+        self.assertFalse(engine.alive())
+
+    def test_zero_waits_as_before(self):
+        engine = self.bare(0)
+        self.later(engine, 0.5, "T 5", "DONE 1 1 1 1 length")
+        self.assertEqual(list(engine.generate([1], 10, {}, threading.Event())), [5])
+
+    def test_config(self):
+        from serve.server import ENGINE_SILENCE_S, engine_silence_s
+        self.assertEqual(engine_silence_s({}), ENGINE_SILENCE_S)
+        self.assertEqual(engine_silence_s({"engine_silence_s": 0}), 0.0)
+        self.assertEqual(engine_silence_s({"engine_silence_s": 900}), 900.0)
+        for bad in (-1, "300", True):
+            with self.assertRaises(ValueError):
+                engine_silence_s({"engine_silence_s": bad})
+
+
+FAKE_LOST_STEP = '''import pathlib, sys, time
+mark = pathlib.Path(sys.argv[sys.argv.index("--mark") + 1])
+mode = sys.argv[sys.argv.index("--mode") + 1]
+print("READY 4096 stop", flush=True)
+for line in sys.stdin:
+    if line.startswith("QUIT"):
+        break
+    if line.startswith("GEN"):
+        if not mark.exists():                    # the first engine loses step (#481): it never says DONE
+            mark.touch()
+            print("T 104", flush=True)
+            if mode == "stop":
+                print("T 257", flush=True)       # <|im_end|>: the server STOPs and drains, and the engine is silent
+            time.sleep(3600)
+        print("T 111", flush=True)
+        print("T 107", flush=True)
+        print("DONE 2 5 1.0 1.0 length", flush=True)
+'''
+
+
+class LostStep(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#481 over HTTP, with a real process: the request with the silent engine ends with an error, and the next one
+    starts the engine again and is answered (the server used to wait forever, holding the request FIFO)."""
+
+    def run_mode(self, mode, stream):
+        import serve.server as server
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            script, mark = Path(d) / "fake_strata.py", Path(d) / "lost"
+            script.write_text(FAKE_LOST_STEP, encoding="utf-8")
+            real = server.subprocess.Popen
+            with mock.patch.object(server.subprocess, "Popen",
+                                   lambda cmd, **kw: real([sys.executable, str(script), *cmd[1:]], **kw)):
+                eng = StrataEngine("strata", ["--mark", str(mark), "--mode", mode])
+                eng.silence_s = 0.5
+                tok = ByteTokenizer()
+                svc = Service(eng, tok, ChatTemplate(ROOT / "serve/chat_template.jinja"))
+                httpd = serve(svc, port=0)
+                base = f"http://127.0.0.1:{httpd.server_address[1]}"
+                body = {"model": "m", "max_tokens": 2, "reasoning_effort": "none", "stream": stream,
+                        "messages": [{"role": "user", "content": "hi"}]}
+                try:
+                    first = eng.proc
+                    req = urllib.request.Request(base + "/v1/chat/completions", data=json.dumps(body).encode(),
+                                                 headers={"Content-Type": "application/json"})
+                    try:
+                        with urllib.request.urlopen(req, timeout=60) as r:
+                            text = r.read().decode()
+                    except urllib.error.HTTPError as e:
+                        self.assertEqual(e.code, 503)
+                        text = e.read().decode()
+                    self.assertIn("the next request restarts it", text)
+                    self.assertIsNotNone(first.poll(), "the silent engine still runs")
+                    self.assertEqual(svc.history[-1]["finish"], "error")
+                    with urllib.request.urlopen(req, timeout=60) as r:
+                        text = r.read().decode()
+                    self.assertIsNot(eng.proc, first)
+                    if stream:
+                        answer = "".join(json.loads(x[6:])["choices"][0]["delta"].get("content") or ""
+                                         for x in text.splitlines() if x.startswith("data: {") and "choices" in x)
+                    else:
+                        answer = json.loads(text)["choices"][0]["message"]["content"]
+                    self.assertEqual(answer, "ok")
+                finally:
+                    httpd.shutdown()
+                    httpd.server_close()
+                    eng.unload()
+
+    def test_silent_mid_answer(self):
+        self.run_mode("silent", stream=False)
+
+    def test_silent_mid_stream(self):
+        self.run_mode("silent", stream=True)
+
+    def test_stop_never_acknowledged(self):
+        self.run_mode("stop", stream=False)
+
+
 if __name__ == "__main__":
     unittest.main()

setup.py

@@ -69,14 +69,23 @@ HF_REVISIONS = {
 }
 
 
+HF_DEFAULT = "https://huggingface.co"
+
+
+def hf_endpoint() -> str:
+    """#495: the Hugging Face host - HF_ENDPOINT as huggingface_hub reads it (a mirror, e.g. https://hf-mirror.com),
+    else huggingface.co.  The pinned revisions and the SHA-256 checks are the same whichever host serves the files."""
+    return (os.environ.get("HF_ENDPOINT") or "").strip().rstrip("/") or HF_DEFAULT
+
+
 def hf(repo: str) -> str:
     """The download folder of a Hugging Face repository at its pinned revision."""
-    return f"https://huggingface.co/{repo}/resolve/{HF_REVISIONS[repo]}/"
+    return f"{hf_endpoint()}/{repo}/resolve/{HF_REVISIONS[repo]}/"
 
 
 def hf_unpinned(url: str) -> str:
     """The same file at the repository's current revision (main)."""
-    return re.sub(r"(https://huggingface\.co/.+?/resolve/)[0-9a-f]{40}/", r"\1main/", url, count=1)
+    return re.sub(r"^(https?://[^/]+/.+?/resolve/)[0-9a-f]{40}/", r"\1main/", url, count=1)
 
 
 HF = hf("ISTA-DASLab/Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-GSQ-RCO-GGUF")
@@ -94,7 +103,7 @@ PREBUILT_ASSET = "strata-windows-x64.zip" if WIN else "strata-linux-x64.zip"
 # the CUDA libraries the ready-made engine loads (the same CUDA 13.0 it is built with), from NVIDIA's pip packages
 CUDA_WHEELS = ["nvidia-cublas==13.0.2.14", "nvidia-cuda-runtime==13.0.96"]
 MIN_DRIVER = 580                       # CUDA 13.0
-MIN_ENGINE = (0, 1, 34)                # v0.1.34: AMD on Windows (a ready-made HIP engine), an MCP server for AI assistants (tools/strata_mcp.py), a shorter README; v0.1.33: a portable image encoder again (#411 #412), setup recommends instead of forcing (#406 #403 #364 #384), fixes #352 #365 #369 #371 #375 #393 #408 #414; v0.1.32: split prompts faster (#340), AMD router +12%, Unsloth Q4 in setup, faster Q4 prompts, #326/#327/#342/#344 fixes, PR batch; v0.1.31: Unsloth UD-Q4_K_XL (experimental), GGUF-in-place low-RAM mode, Windows GGUF load 2x, server race + tokenizer fixes, AMD intrinsics; v0.1.30: short prompts faster (streaming from 1024 tokens), resident low-RAM variant, multi-GPU session carve, RDNA4; v0.1.29: sampled answers faster (split top-k), #154 correctness fixes; v0.1.28: the expert cache reserves the draft head, a cancelled request no longer fails the next; v0.1.27: RTX 20 (sm_75) in the ready-made engine, the HIP build without CUDA headers; v0.1.26: the draft layer's prompt pass in batches; v0.1.25: faster prompts (grouping off the copy engine, fused hyper-connection kernels), AMD HIP backend, --kv k8v4; v0.1.24: long prompts faster (QSA select on tensor cores); v0.1.23: image requests honor sampling, 8 GB cards start, batched verify window; v0.1.22: faster prompts (tensor-core attention), multi-GPU across images/steering/KV streaming; v0.1.21: multi-GPU layer split (--gpus); v0.1.20: system-prompt checkpoint, PCIe probe, hit rate; v0.1.19: penalties
+MIN_ENGINE = (0, 1, 37)                # v0.1.37: a silent engine is restarted (#481), Windows AMD counts the desktop's VRAM (#380 #377 #497), a steadier PCIe probe (#485), fixes #496 #495 #498 #505 #493; v0.1.36: a cancelled prompt logged as read so far (#471), the draft-head hint (#474), UPDATE.bat (#475), --expert-profile-save (#477); v0.1.35: Windows AMD uses its bundled HIP runtime (#468 #461), the low-RAM resident mode on Windows 32 GB (#467), fixes #460 #459 #446 #447 #457 #448 #444; v0.1.34: AMD on Windows (a ready-made HIP engine), an MCP server for AI assistants (tools/strata_mcp.py), a shorter README; v0.1.33: a portable image encoder again (#411 #412), setup recommends instead of forcing (#406 #403 #364 #384), fixes #352 #365 #369 #371 #375 #393 #408 #414; v0.1.32: split prompts faster (#340), AMD router +12%, Unsloth Q4 in setup, faster Q4 prompts, #326/#327/#342/#344 fixes, PR batch; v0.1.31: Unsloth UD-Q4_K_XL (experimental), GGUF-in-place low-RAM mode, Windows GGUF load 2x, server race + tokenizer fixes, AMD intrinsics; v0.1.30: short prompts faster (streaming from 1024 tokens), resident low-RAM variant, multi-GPU session carve, RDNA4; v0.1.29: sampled answers faster (split top-k), #154 correctness fixes; v0.1.28: the expert cache reserves the draft head, a cancelled request no longer fails the next; v0.1.27: RTX 20 (sm_75) in the ready-made engine, the HIP build without CUDA headers; v0.1.26: the draft layer's prompt pass in batches; v0.1.25: faster prompts (grouping off the copy engine, fused hyper-connection kernels), AMD HIP backend, --kv k8v4; v0.1.24: long prompts faster (QSA select on tensor cores); v0.1.23: image requests honor sampling, 8 GB cards start, batched verify window; v0.1.22: faster prompts (tensor-core attention), multi-GPU across images/steering/KV streaming; v0.1.21: multi-GPU layer split (--gpus); v0.1.20: system-prompt checkpoint, PCIe probe, hit rate; v0.1.19: penalties
 PY_PACKAGES = ["numpy", "jinja2", "regex", "pyyaml", "tqdm", "requests", "cmake", "ninja", "pillow", "psutil"]
 REQUIREMENTS = ROOT / "requirements.txt"   # the same packages and their dependencies, pinned (#214)
 
@@ -390,6 +399,10 @@ def gpus():
 GPU_PICK = None                                         # --gpu N (issue #51); None: the card with the most VRAM
 SPLIT_MIN_VRAM_GB = 8                                   # a card sharing a model holds the dense weights and its own
                                                         # prompt buffers too (docs/MULTI_GPU.md)
+SPLIT_PROMPT_VRAM_GB = 12                               # #448: a split stage lends a prompt chunk's buffers from its
+                                                        # own cache; below this one cannot fund a 4096-token chunk
+                                                        # (a 10 GB RTX 3080 beside a 32 GB card: 512 tokens, prompts
+                                                        # 6.2x slower), while the big card alone could
 
 
 def cc(g) -> str:
@@ -441,6 +454,20 @@ def together_ok(found) -> list:
     return ok_ if len(ok_) >= 2 else []
 
 
+def split_short(cards) -> list:
+    """#448: the later cards of a split that would cap its prompt chunk below what the first card alone reads (a card
+    under SPLIT_PROMPT_VRAM_GB beside one that has it).  Empty: the split is recommended as before."""
+    if len(cards) < 2 or cards[0]["vram_gb"] < SPLIT_PROMPT_VRAM_GB - 0.5:
+        return []
+    return [g for g in cards[1:] if g["vram_gb"] < SPLIT_PROMPT_VRAM_GB - 0.5]
+
+
+def split_short_note(g) -> str:
+    return (f"GPU {g['index']} ({g['name']}, {g['vram_gb']:.0f} GB) is too small to lend a split its prompt buffers: "
+            "it would cap prompt reading at 512-2048-token chunks, several times slower than the first card alone "
+            "(#448). It can serve as a helper expert cache instead (docs/SECOND_GPU.md)")
+
+
 def parse_gpus(text, found) -> list:
     """--gpus / --gpu with several: "0,2" or "all" (every card that can share the model)."""
     if str(text).strip().lower() == "all":
@@ -549,13 +576,18 @@ def choose_gpus(a, found) -> list:
     say("  experts of its own layers, so together they hold about twice as many, and prompts are read about 20%")
     say("  faster (details: docs/MULTI_GPU.md). A much slower extra card can also make it slower.")
     opts = [can[:2]] + ([can] if len(can) > 2 else []) + [[g] for g in single]
+    # #448: a pair whose second card cannot lend a 4096-token chunk recommends the first card alone (still offered)
+    short = split_short(can[:2])
+    rec = next(i for i, o in enumerate(opts, 1) if o == [can[0]]) if short else 1
     for i, o in enumerate(opts, 1):
         label = (" + ".join(gpu_name(g) for g in o) + " together") if len(o) > 1 else gpu_name(o[0]) + " only"
-        say(f"  {i}) {label}" + ("   (recommended)" if i == 1 else ""))
+        say(f"  {i}) {label}" + ("   (recommended)" if i == rec else ""))
     for g in found:
         if gpu_problem(g, together=True) is not None:
             say(f"     (GPU {g['index']}, {g['name']}: {gpu_problem(g, together=True)})")
-    pick = opts[int(ask("Which GPUs?", [str(i) for i in range(1, len(opts) + 1)], "1", a.yes or a.check)) - 1]
+    for g in short:
+        say(f"     ({split_short_note(g)})")
+    pick = opts[int(ask("Which GPUs?", [str(i) for i in range(1, len(opts) + 1)], str(rec), a.yes or a.check)) - 1]
     return [g["index"] for g in pick]
 
 
@@ -575,6 +607,33 @@ def split_mmap(cfg: dict) -> bool:
     return True
 
 
+def unsloth_split_need_gb(model="UD-Q4_K_XL") -> float:
+    """#498: the RAM UD-Q4_K_XL needs on several GPUs, where it has no RAM budget (the engine refuses
+    --resident-budget-gib with a layer split): its GGUF files and UNSLOTH_RAM_LEFT_GB more (~135 GB).  Measured safe
+    at 165 GiB (2x RTX 3090: MemAvailable never under 68 GiB); the 0-free case of #384 was 47 GB with a 70 GB model."""
+    return MODELS[model]["download_gb"] + UNSLOTH_RAM_LEFT_GB
+
+
+def split_budget(cfg: dict) -> bool:
+    """#498: a UD-Q4_K_XL config (its RAM budget, --resident-budget-gib) started on several GPUs.  The engine refuses
+    the budget with a layer split (it exited with code 2), so the split runs without it - all the experts loaded into
+    RAM at start - where the RAM holds the GGUFs and 24 GB more; else setup stops, before the config is saved.  True
+    when the config changed."""
+    a = cfg.get("args", [])
+    if "--resident-budget-gib" not in a:
+        return False
+    need, ram = unsloth_split_need_gb(), ram_gb()
+    if ram < need:
+        fail(f"UD-Q4_K_XL cannot share its RAM budget across GPUs (the engine has no layer split with it), and without "
+             f"the budget it needs ~{need:.0f} GB of RAM (its GGUF files and {UNSLOTH_RAM_LEFT_GB} GB more); this PC "
+             f"has {ram:.0f} GB", "start it on one GPU: START-HERE.bat --gpu N (Linux: ./setup.sh --gpu N)")
+    i = a.index("--resident-budget-gib")
+    del a[i:i + 2]
+    ok("UD-Q4_K_XL on several GPUs: no RAM budget (the engine has none with a layer split) - all its experts are "
+       "loaded into RAM from the model files at start, and the files pass through the OS file cache (#498)")
+    return True
+
+
 def offer_together(cfg_path: Path, cfg: dict, yes: bool) -> dict:
     """Starting a model set up for one card on a PC with two or more that can share it: asked once (the answer is
     saved in its config)."""
@@ -584,6 +643,10 @@ def offer_together(cfg_path: Path, cfg: dict, yes: bool) -> dict:
     can = together_ok(found)
     if not can:
         return cfg
+    # #498: UD-Q4_K_XL's RAM budget has no layer split; without it the RAM must hold the GGUFs and 24 GB more
+    budget = "--resident-budget-gib" in cfg.get("args", [])
+    if budget and ram_gb() < unsloth_split_need_gb():
+        return cfg
     pair = can[:2]
     cfg["gpus_asked"] = True
     # #364 #384: the resident low-RAM variant stays on one card unless the user says otherwise (its RAM use is steady)
@@ -595,19 +658,27 @@ def offer_together(cfg_path: Path, cfg: dict, yes: bool) -> dict:
         say("  This model runs in the low-RAM mode with its experts kept in RAM, on one GPU (recommended: steady RAM")
         say("  use). On both, the experts the GPUs do not hold are read through the OS file cache instead: faster in")
         say("  two reports (#364, #384), but RAM can fill up to 0 free during long prompts.")
+    if budget:
+        say("  This model (UD-Q4_K_XL) runs on one GPU with a RAM budget of its experts (recommended: the tested")
+        say("  setup). On both it has no budget: all its experts are loaded into RAM at start, which this PC's RAM")
+        say("  holds - about twice as fast in #498 (2x RTX 3090: 31 -> 64-78 tokens/s).")
+    short = split_short(pair)             # #448: one card recommended (asked "n" by default), as for --resident
+    for g in short:
+        say(f"  {split_short_note(g)}.")
     missing = [g for g in pair if not engine_runs_on(g)]
     if missing:
         say("  The installed engine has no code for " + ", ".join(g["name"] for g in missing) + ": to use them "
             "together, run START-HERE.bat --setup --gpus " + ",".join(str(g["index"]) for g in pair))
     elif ask("  Use both from now on? (you can change it later: START-HERE.bat --gpu N for one card)",
-             ["y", "n"], "n" if resident else "y", yes) == "y":
+             ["y", "n"], "n" if resident or short or budget else "y", yes) == "y":
         cfg["gpu"] = [g["index"] for g in pair]
         cfg["layer_split"] = cfg.get("layer_split") or "auto"
         split_mmap(cfg)
+        split_budget(cfg)
         ok("from now on this model runs on " + " + ".join(gpu_name(g) for g in pair))
     else:
         ok("staying on one GPU (START-HERE.bat --gpus " + ",".join(str(g["index"]) for g in pair) + " switches)")
-    cfg_path.write_text(json.dumps(cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+    write_config(cfg_path, cfg)
     return cfg
 
 
@@ -797,6 +868,55 @@ def gguf_dir_shards(folder: Path, fam: dict, model: str) -> list[Path]:
     return [first.with_name("%s-%05d-of-%05d.gguf" % (stem, i, total)) for i in range(1, total + 1)]
 
 
+# #444: the quantization in a GGUF's name (Unsloth's UD-IQ3_XXS, a K-quant's Q2_K_XL, a GSQ-RCO IQ3_S, ...)
+GGUF_QUANT = re.compile(r"(?<![A-Za-z0-9])((?:UD-)?(?:I?Q\d+(?:_[A-Za-z0-9]+)*|BF16|F16|F32))"
+                        r"(?=-\d{5}-of-\d{5}\.gguf$|\.gguf$)", re.I)
+SUPPORTED_GGUFS = ("Strata runs ISTA-DASLab's GSQ-RCO files (Qwen3.8-Flash-Next Q2_0, IQ2_XS, IQ3_XXS, IQ3_S; Swift "
+                   "1.5's; the Coder's IQ1_M) and Unsloth's UD-Q4_K_XL only: other GGUFs (Unsloth's UD-IQ3_XXS or "
+                   "UD-Q2_K_XL, K-quants) cannot be used")
+
+
+def gguf_unsupported(name: str) -> str | None:
+    """#444: the quantization a GGUF's name says, when it is one Strata cannot run (not a setup size); else None."""
+    m = GGUF_QUANT.search(name)
+    return m.group(1) if m and m.group(1).upper() not in MODELS and not name.lower().startswith("mmproj") else None
+
+
+def gguf_choice(name: str) -> tuple | None:
+    """#444: (--family, --model) whose published first shard this file is, or None (the Coder's IQ1_M is named like
+    the original's sizes: the size tells them apart)."""
+    for f, d in FAMILIES.items():
+        for m in MODELS:
+            if f in MODELS[m].get("families", ("qwen", "swift")) and name == d["file"].format(q=m, i=1):
+                return f, m
+    return None
+
+
+def gguf_dir_problem(folder: Path, first: Path, fam: dict, model: str) -> tuple | None:
+    """#444: (message, hint) when --gguf-dir has no file setup can use for this choice: the chosen shard is a GGUF
+    Strata cannot run (Unsloth's UD-IQ3_XXS taken for IQ3_XXS by its name), or it is missing and the folder holds
+    other GGUFs - then the hint names the --family/--model of the usable ones.  None otherwise (a missing shard in a
+    folder without GGUFs stays check_shards' "missing")."""
+    bad = gguf_unsupported(first.name) if first.exists() else None
+    if bad:
+        return f"{first.name} is {bad}, a GGUF Strata cannot run", SUPPORTED_GGUFS
+    if first.exists():
+        return None
+    firsts = sorted(p.name for p in folder.glob("*.gguf")
+                    if not p.name.lower().startswith("mmproj") and (not SHARD_NAME.search(p.name)
+                                                                     or SHARD_NAME.search(p.name).group(1) == "00001"))
+    usable = list(dict.fromkeys(c for c in map(gguf_choice, firsts) if c))
+    unusable = [n for n in firsts if gguf_unsupported(n)]
+    if not usable and not unusable:
+        return None
+    hint = SUPPORTED_GGUFS
+    if unusable:
+        hint += ".\n       Not usable here: " + ", ".join(unusable)
+    if usable:
+        hint += ".\n       Usable here: " + ", ".join(f"--family {f} --model {m}" for f, m in usable)
+    return f"{folder} has no {fam['title']} {model} file", hint
+
+
 def verify_sha256(s: Path, size: int, sha: str) -> None:
     """A shard's size and SHA-256 against the pinned values (the Unsloth file); the result is kept in its finish mark,
     so the ~5 minutes of hashing 111 GB happen once.  A wrong file is deleted, so the next run downloads it again."""
@@ -1192,6 +1312,7 @@ def hip_devices(probe: Path | None = None, text: str | None = None) -> list[dict
         if not probe.exists() or not hip_engine:
             return None
         try:
+            hip_runtime_beside_exe(probe.parent)       # #468 #461: not the driver's System32 copy
             env = dict(os.environ)                     # the ready-made engine's ROCm DLLs (rocm/bin beside it)
             env["PATH"] = os.pathsep.join([str(d) for d in hip_lib_dirs(probe.parent)] + [env.get("PATH", "")])
             r = subprocess.run([str(probe), "--list-devices"], capture_output=True, text=True, timeout=120,
@@ -1232,6 +1353,31 @@ def hip_lib_dirs(eng: Path) -> list[Path]:
     return [eng / d for d in rel if (eng / d).is_dir()]
 
 
+# #468 #461: the HIP runtime the ready-made engine was built with, next to strata.exe.  Windows looks for an imported
+# DLL in the exe's folder, then System32, and only then on PATH (where rocm/bin is): an AMD driver that installs its own
+# amdhip64_7.dll in System32 won, and the bundled rocBLAS/hipBLAS ran on that runtime - an access violation (W7900) or
+# hipErrorInvalidDeviceFunction (7900 XTX) on the first prompt.  Only the runtime and the compiler it loads by name:
+# rocBLAS/hipBLASLt stay in rocm/bin, where they find their kernel libraries and ../.kpack.
+HIP_RUNTIME_DLLS = ("amdhip64_*.dll", "amd_comgr*.dll")
+
+
+def hip_runtime_beside_exe(eng: Path) -> None:
+    """Copy the bundled HIP runtime DLLs from rocm/bin next to the engine's exes when missing or different (a 0.1.34
+    install, whose zip had them in rocm/bin only, is fixed on its next start)."""
+    for d in hip_lib_dirs(eng):
+        for pat in HIP_RUNTIME_DLLS:
+            for src in d.glob(pat):
+                dst = eng / src.name
+                try:
+                    if dst.exists() and dst.stat().st_size == src.stat().st_size and \
+                            dst.stat().st_mtime >= src.stat().st_mtime:
+                        continue
+                    shutil.copy2(src, dst)
+                except OSError as e:                   # e.g. the engine is running and holds the old copy
+                    warn(f"could not put {src.name} next to the AMD engine ({e}); if the engine stops on its first "
+                         "request, close Strata and run START-HERE.bat again")
+
+
 def hip_match(card: dict, listed: list[dict], hip: list[dict]) -> dict | None:
     """The HIP device that is setup's `card` (from `listed`, the display-adapter order): the k-th device of the same
     architecture, k = the card's rank among the listed cards of that architecture.  None when HIP has no such card."""
@@ -1324,6 +1470,7 @@ def get_prebuilt_hip(url_base, gpu, updating=False) -> Path | None:
         p.replace(dst)
     shutil.rmtree(tmp, ignore_errors=True)
     drop_archive(z)
+    hip_runtime_beside_exe(eng)                        # #468 #461
     ok(f"ready-made AMD engine {meta.get('version', '')} for {', '.join(meta.get('archs', []))} "
        f"(ROCm {meta.get('rocm', '?')})")
     return eng
@@ -1338,18 +1485,32 @@ def rocm_version(root):
         return None
 
 
+def rocm_dev_missing(sysroot: Path) -> list:
+    """#446: the HIP development files the engine's build needs that a system ROCm lacks (a runtime-only install has
+    hipcc and libhipblas but not these, and cmake's enable_language(HIP) then fails on the hip-lang package)."""
+    lang = "cmake/hip-lang/hip-lang-config.cmake"     # where CMake's HIP support looks for it
+    need = {"lib/" + lang: [sysroot / d / lang for d in ("lib", "lib64", "lib/x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu")],
+            "include/hip/hip_runtime.h": [sysroot / "include" / "hip" / "hip_runtime.h"]}
+    return [name for name, paths in need.items() if not any(p.is_file() for p in paths)]
+
+
 def rocm_root(archs):
     """ROCm for compiling and running the HIP engine for `archs` (one arch or a list: the cards of a layer split):
-    (root, library folders).  A system ROCm 7 with hipcc and hipBLAS, else AMD's TheRock wheels (ROCM_VERSION, from the
-    card family's index) installed into .venv."""
+    (root, library folders).  A system ROCm 7 with hipcc, hipBLAS and the HIP development files (#446), else AMD's
+    TheRock wheels (ROCM_VERSION, from the card family's index) installed into .venv."""
     archs = [archs] if isinstance(archs, str) else list(archs)
     sysroot = Path(os.environ.get("ROCM_PATH") or "/opt/rocm")
     if (sysroot / "bin" / "hipcc").exists() and list((sysroot / "lib").glob("libhipblas.so*")):
         ver = rocm_version(sysroot)
-        if ver is None or ver >= ROCM_SYSTEM_MIN:
+        missing = rocm_dev_missing(sysroot)
+        if (ver is None or ver >= ROCM_SYSTEM_MIN) and not missing:
             return sysroot, [str(sysroot / "lib")]
-        warn(f"the ROCm in {sysroot} is {ver[0]}.{ver[1]}; Strata needs {ROCM_SYSTEM_MIN[0]}.{ROCM_SYSTEM_MIN[1]} or "
-             "newer: using AMD's wheels in .venv instead")
+        if ver is not None and ver < ROCM_SYSTEM_MIN:
+            warn(f"the ROCm in {sysroot} is {ver[0]}.{ver[1]}; Strata needs {ROCM_SYSTEM_MIN[0]}.{ROCM_SYSTEM_MIN[1]} "
+                 "or newer: using AMD's wheels in .venv instead")
+        else:                                          # #446: a runtime-only ROCm (no -dev packages): cmake would fail
+            warn(f"the ROCm in {sysroot} has no HIP development files ({', '.join(missing)}): using AMD's wheels in "
+                 ".venv instead (or install them, e.g. AMD's amdrocm-core-dev package for your ROCm and card)")
     indexes = list(dict.fromkeys(rocm_index(a) for a in archs))
     if len(indexes) > 1:                               # TheRock's wheels hold one GPU family's libraries
         fail(f"cards of two GPU families ({', '.join(archs)}) need a system ROCm 7 (in /opt/rocm): AMD's Python "
@@ -1952,6 +2113,43 @@ def low_ram_together(a, model, ram, gpu, chosen) -> bool:
     return False
 
 
+def unsloth_together(a, model, ram, gpu, chosen) -> bool:
+    """#498: UD-Q4_K_XL with several GPUs chosen.  Its RAM budget (--resident-budget-gib) has no layer split, so a
+    split runs without it: all its experts loaded into RAM from the GGUFs at start, as with the 2-3-bit models - only
+    where the RAM holds the GGUF files and 24 GB more (unsloth_split_need_gb; 165 GiB, 2x RTX 3090: 31 -> 64-78
+    tok/s).  An explicit --gpus is honoured there; otherwise asked, one GPU by default (--yes: one GPU, as before); an
+    explicit --resident-budget-gib keeps one GPU.  True: all of them."""
+    names = " + ".join(gpu_name(g) for g in chosen)
+    need = unsloth_split_need_gb(model)
+    if ram < need:
+        warn(f"{model} runs on one GPU here: on several it has no RAM budget and needs ~{need:.0f} GB of RAM (its GGUF "
+             f"files and {UNSLOTH_RAM_LEFT_GB} GB more), this PC has {ram:.0f} - using {gpu_name(gpu)} only")
+        return False
+    if a.resident_budget_gib is not None:
+        warn(f"--resident-budget-gib has no layer split: {model} runs on one GPU with it - using {gpu_name(gpu)} only "
+             f"(leave the budget out to use {names} together)")
+        return False
+    note = (f"no RAM budget - all of its experts (~{MODELS[model]['arena_gb']:.0f} GB) are loaded into RAM from the "
+            f"model files at start, and the files pass through the OS file cache (needs ~{need:.0f} GB of RAM, this "
+            f"PC has {ram:.0f})")
+    if a.gpus:
+        ok(f"{model} on {names}, as you chose (--gpus): {note}")
+        return True
+    if not a.yes:
+        say()
+        say(f"  {model} can run on one GPU with a RAM budget of its experts, or on {names} together without one:")
+        say(f"  1) {gpu_name(gpu)} only: the most-used experts kept in RAM, the rest read from the SSD   (recommended: "
+            "the tested setup)")
+        say(f"  2) {names} together: {note};")
+        say("     about twice as fast in #498 (2x RTX 3090: 31 -> 64-78 tokens/s)")
+        if ask(f"{model}: which GPUs?", ["1", "2"], "1", a.yes) == "2":
+            ok(f"{model} on {names}: {note}")
+            return True
+    warn(f"{model} runs on one GPU: using {gpu_name(gpu)} only (--gpus " + ",".join(str(g["index"]) for g in chosen) +
+         f" shares it across {names} without the RAM budget: this PC's RAM holds it)")
+    return False
+
+
 def confirm_risk(msg, explicit, yes, stop, hint=None, question="  Go on anyway?", default="n") -> None:
     """The owner's rule: setup recommends, it never forces.  A choice setup expects to fail or run badly is said
     plainly (msg), then asked (default n; `default` keeps an older question's own default), or with --yes taken as
@@ -2105,7 +2303,7 @@ def repoint_config(cfg_file: Path, old: Path, new: Path) -> None:
 
     new_cfg = fix(cfg)
     if new_cfg != cfg:
-        cfg_file.write_text(json.dumps(new_cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+        write_config(cfg_file, new_cfg)
 
 
 def data_folder(requested: str | None) -> tuple:
@@ -2162,13 +2360,39 @@ def data_folder(requested: str | None) -> tuple:
     return dest, elsewhere
 
 
+def write_config(path: Path, cfg: dict):
+    """A run config, written whole or not at all (#459): to a temporary file first, then moved over the old one, so
+    a setup stopped half-way (a closed window, a full disk) never leaves an empty strata-*.json behind."""
+    tmp = path.with_name(path.name + ".tmp")
+    tmp.write_text(json.dumps(cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+    os.replace(tmp, path)
+
+
+def readable_config(path: Path) -> bool:
+    """#459: a config that parses as a JSON object; any other gets a one-line warning naming it."""
+    text = None
+    try:
+        text = path.read_text(encoding="utf-8-sig")
+        if isinstance(json.loads(text), dict):
+            return True
+        why = "not a JSON object"
+    except OSError as e:
+        why = e.strerror or str(e)
+    except ValueError:                                 # JSONDecodeError, or bytes that are not UTF-8
+        why = "the file is empty" if text is not None and not text.strip() else "not valid JSON"
+    warn(f"skipped the earlier config {path} ({why}): setting this copy up without it")
+    return False
+
+
 def previous_config(elsewhere_first: list, settings: dict):
-    """The most recently used model config of another Strata folder on this PC, for a folder that has none yet."""
+    """The most recently used model config of another Strata folder on this PC, for a folder that has none yet.  One
+    that does not parse (an empty or cut-off file, #459) is skipped with a warning: the newest readable one is used,
+    and with none this copy is set up as a fresh install."""
     cands = []
     for folder in [*elsewhere_first, *other_installs(settings)]:
         cands += list(folder.glob("strata-*.json"))
     cands = [c for c in dict.fromkeys(cands) if c.is_file()]
-    return max(cands, key=lambda p: p.stat().st_mtime) if cands else None
+    return next((c for c in sorted(cands, key=lambda p: p.stat().st_mtime, reverse=True) if readable_config(c)), None)
 
 
 def choices_from_config(cfg_path: Path) -> dict:
@@ -2190,7 +2414,10 @@ def choices_from_config(cfg_path: Path) -> dict:
             "vision": ("gpu" if vis.get("gpu") else "cpu") if isinstance(vis, dict) else "none",
             "esp": ("on" if Path(esp_path).name == ESP_VECTOR.name else esp_path) if esp_path else "off",
             "host": cfg.get("host"), "api_key": cfg.get("api_key"), "port": cfg.get("port"), "gpu": cfg.get("gpu"),
-            "layer_split": cfg.get("layer_split")}
+            "layer_split": cfg.get("layer_split"),
+            # #493: --vram-reserve-mib given at setup (images write the default 700 themselves)
+            "vram_reserve_mib": int(val("--vram-reserve-mib")) if (val("--vram-reserve-mib") or "").isdigit() and (
+                vis is None or int(val("--vram-reserve-mib")) != VISION["gpu"]["reserve_mib"]) else None}
 
 
 def find_in(roots: list, rel: str):
@@ -2255,13 +2482,20 @@ def calibrate_config(cfg_path: Path) -> bool:
     say()
     say("  Tuning Strata for this PC: the output speed is measured with a few engine settings (the PCIe share, the")
     say("  draft depth, the CPU threads). It takes about 5-10 minutes; the PC is busy meanwhile.")
+    try:
+        since = os.path.getsize(cfg["log"]) if cfg.get("log") and os.path.isfile(cfg["log"]) else 0
+    except OSError:
+        since = 0
     try:
         res = CAL.run(cfg, say=say)
     except Exception as e:                             # never stops an install: the defaults stay
         warn(f"the tuning did not finish ({e}): the default settings stay")
+        why = CAL.engine_error(cfg.get("log"), since)  # #447: the engine's own reason, not only "see the log"
+        if why:
+            say(f"       the engine said: {why}")
         return False
     cfg["args"] = CAL.apply(cfg["args"], res["settings"])
-    cfg_path.write_text(json.dumps(cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+    write_config(cfg_path, cfg)
     st = load_settings()
     st.setdefault("calibration", {})[hardware_key(cfg)] = {"settings": res["settings"], "tok_s": res["report"].get("tok_s"),
                                                            "date": time.strftime("%Y-%m-%d")}
@@ -2301,21 +2535,59 @@ def upgrade_config(cfg_path: Path, cfg: dict) -> dict:
         changed = True
         ok("WSL: KV streaming off (the driver pins only about 1 GB of RAM); the KV cache stays in VRAM")
     if changed:
-        cfg_path.write_text(json.dumps(cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+        write_config(cfg_path, cfg)
     return cfg
 
 
+def update_install(have: list, a) -> int:
+    """#475: `setup.py --update` (UPDATE.bat / update.sh, after their git pull): what a plain START-HERE.bat does to
+    an install before it starts the model, without starting it - the Python packages, the ready-made engine when this
+    setup needs a newer one (MIN_ENGINE; a compiled engine when its source changed), each installed model's config
+    upgrades and its draft subset.  No question is asked and the model files are not touched; a model still running
+    keeps its engine (update_installed_engine says to close it and run this again)."""
+    if not have:
+        say("  No model is installed in this Strata folder yet: run START-HERE.bat (Linux: ./setup.sh) to set it up -")
+        say("  it finds an earlier install's model files next to it and reuses them.")
+        return 0
+    pip_install(requirement_lines() if REQUIREMENTS.exists() else PY_PACKAGES,
+                "numpy, jinja2, regex, pyyaml, tqdm, requests, cmake, ninja, pillow, psutil")
+    if not a.build:
+        update_installed_engine(a.prebuilt)
+    for cfg_path in have:
+        cfg = upgrade_config(cfg_path, json.loads(cfg_path.read_text(encoding="utf-8-sig")))
+        if "--mtp" in cfg["args"][:-1]:
+            refresh_draft_vocab(Path(cfg["args"][cfg["args"].index("--mtp") + 1]), cfg.get("draft_vocab", "cjk"))
+        if cfg.get("backend") == "hip" and WIN:
+            hip_runtime_beside_exe(Path(cfg["exe"]).parent)   # #468 #461
+        ok(f"{cfg.get('model_name', cfg_path.stem)}: up to date")
+    ver = engine_version(Path(json.loads(have[0].read_text(encoding="utf-8-sig"))["exe"]))
+    say()
+    ok("Strata is updated" + (f" (engine {'.'.join(map(str, ver))})" if any(ver) else "") +
+       ". Start the model with " + ("START-HERE.bat" if WIN else "./setup.sh") + " when you want it.")
+    return 0
+
+
 def start(cfg_path: Path, port: int | None, gpu: int | list | None = None, open_browser=True, yes=False,
           layer_split=None, keep=None) -> int:
-    """keep: settings given on this start that the model keeps from now on (--host, --api-key, --draft-vocab)."""
+    """keep: settings given on this start that the model keeps from now on (--host, --api-key, --draft-vocab,
+    --vram-reserve-mib)."""
     cfg = upgrade_config(cfg_path, json.loads(cfg_path.read_text(encoding="utf-8-sig")))
     missing = [p for p in [cfg["exe"], *[a for a in cfg["args"] if a.endswith(".gguf")]] if not Path(p).exists()]
     if missing:
         fail(f"{cfg_path.name} refers to missing files: {missing[0]}", "run it again with --setup to repair")
     keep = {k: v for k, v in (keep or {}).items() if v is not None}
+    reserve = keep.pop("vram_reserve_mib", None)       # #493: an engine argument, kept in the config's args
+    if reserve is not None:
+        args = cfg["args"]
+        if "--vram-reserve-mib" in args[:-1]:
+            args[args.index("--vram-reserve-mib") + 1] = str(reserve)
+        else:
+            args += ["--vram-reserve-mib", str(reserve)]
+        write_config(cfg_path, cfg)
+        ok(f"saved for this model: {reserve} MiB of VRAM kept free for other programs (--vram-reserve-mib)")
     if keep and any(cfg.get(k) != v for k, v in keep.items()):   # #179: a --host/--api-key on a start was ignored
         cfg.update(keep)
-        cfg_path.write_text(json.dumps(cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+        write_config(cfg_path, cfg)
         ok("saved for this model: " + ", ".join("api key" if k == "api_key" else f"{k.replace('_', ' ')} {v}"
                                                 for k, v in keep.items()))
     cfg_path.touch()                                     # the most recently used model
@@ -2324,6 +2596,8 @@ def start(cfg_path: Path, port: int | None, gpu: int | list | None = None, open_
     cmd = [sys.executable, str(ROOT / "serve" / "server.py"), "--engine", "strata", "--config", str(cfg_path),
            "--port", str(port or cfg.get("port", 8080))]
     if cfg.get("backend") == "hip":                    # AMD, numbered as HIP numbers them (setup's KFD order)
+        if WIN:
+            hip_runtime_beside_exe(Path(cfg["exe"]).parent)   # #468 #461: also fixes a 0.1.34 install
         amd = amd_gpus()
         if isinstance(gpu, list):                      # --gpus: saved, this model runs on these cards from now on
             cards = amd_parse_gpus(",".join(str(i) for i in gpu), amd)
@@ -2334,7 +2608,8 @@ def start(cfg_path: Path, port: int | None, gpu: int | list | None = None, open_
                      "set it up for these cards: ./setup.sh --setup --backend hip --gpus " + ",".join(map(str, gpu)))
             cfg["gpu"], cfg["gpus_asked"] = gpu, True
             cfg["layer_split"] = layer_split or cfg.get("layer_split") or "auto"
-            cfg_path.write_text(json.dumps(cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+            split_budget(cfg)                          # #498: before it is saved (it stops when the RAM is short)
+            write_config(cfg_path, cfg)
             gpu = None
         elif gpu is not None:
             cmd += ["--gpu", str(gpu)]
@@ -2357,7 +2632,8 @@ def start(cfg_path: Path, port: int | None, gpu: int | list | None = None, open_
         check_gpus(gpu, found, yes=yes, named=True)
         cfg["gpu"], cfg["gpus_asked"] = gpu, True
         cfg["layer_split"] = layer_split or cfg.get("layer_split") or "auto"
-        cfg_path.write_text(json.dumps(cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+        split_budget(cfg)                              # #498: before it is saved (it stops when the RAM is short)
+        write_config(cfg_path, cfg)
         gpu = None
     elif gpu is not None:                              # --gpu N: this start only, on that card
         check_gpus([gpu], found)
@@ -2365,8 +2641,9 @@ def start(cfg_path: Path, port: int | None, gpu: int | list | None = None, open_
     else:
         cfg = offer_together(cfg_path, cfg, yes)
     use = gpu if gpu is not None else cfg.get("gpu")
-    if isinstance(use, list) and split_mmap(cfg):     # #364 #384: a resident low-RAM config on several GPUs
-        cfg_path.write_text(json.dumps(cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+    # #364 #384: a resident low-RAM config on several GPUs; #498: a UD-Q4_K_XL config with its RAM budget (by hand)
+    if isinstance(use, list) and (split_mmap(cfg) | split_budget(cfg)):
+        write_config(cfg_path, cfg)
     if cfg.get("backend") == "hip":
         pass
     elif isinstance(use, list):
@@ -2390,8 +2667,15 @@ def start(cfg_path: Path, port: int | None, gpu: int | list | None = None, open_
             pass
     say()
     say("  " + "-" * 100)
-    say(f"  Starting {cfg.get('model_name', 'the model')}: it loads {f'about {gb:.0f} GB' if gb >= 1 else '34-55 GB'} "
-        "into RAM and locks part of it for the GPU.")
+    size = f'about {gb:.0f} GB' if gb >= 1 else '34-55 GB'
+    a_ = cfg["args"]
+    if "--mmap-experts" in a_ and "--resident-budget-gib" not in a_ and "--resident-experts" not in a_:
+        # #505: the mapped low-RAM mode loads nothing into RAM up front (the server's narrator says the same)
+        say(f"  Starting {cfg.get('model_name', 'the model')}: it maps {size} of experts from the model files (the OS "
+            "file cache reads them).")
+    else:
+        say(f"  Starting {cfg.get('model_name', 'the model')}: it loads {size} into RAM and locks part of it for the "
+            "GPU.")
     say("  While it does, YOUR PC CAN BE SLOW OR STOP RESPONDING FOR 1-3 MINUTES (longer the first time after a")
     say("  restart). That is normal: please wait and don't close this window - the browser opens when it is ready.")
     say("  Later, closing this window stops the model.")
@@ -2421,6 +2705,25 @@ def saved_draft_vocab(cfg_path: Path) -> str | None:
     return v if v in DRAFT_VOCABS else None
 
 
+DRAFT_VOCAB_MIB = {"cjk": 348, "cyrillic": 193, "en": 133}   # the draft head's VRAM per subset (IQ3_S: the largest)
+SMALL_DRAFT_VRAM_GB = 14   # #474: below this the default subset's head can be what does not fit
+
+
+def draft_vocab_note(vram_gb: float, chosen: str | None) -> list[str]:
+    """#474: on a card under 14 GB, the default draft subset (cjk, ~348 MiB of VRAM) can be what does not fit at the
+    start ("the draft head does not fit"), and the engine's expert cache gets what a smaller one leaves.  Setup
+    RECOMMENDS a smaller one here and changes nothing (the owner's rule, #403 #406): a subset chosen with
+    --draft-vocab, or kept from an earlier install, gets no note.  [] for every other case."""
+    if chosen or not 0 < vram_gb < SMALL_DRAFT_VRAM_GB:
+        return []
+    start = "START-HERE.bat" if WIN else "./setup.sh"
+    return [f"Tip for a {vram_gb:.0f} GB card: the draft layer's default token subset (with Chinese, Japanese and "
+            f"Korean) needs up to ~{DRAFT_VOCAB_MIB['cjk']} MiB of VRAM.",
+            f"  For English and code answers, {start} --draft-vocab en needs up to ~{DRAFT_VOCAB_MIB['en']} MiB "
+            f"(cyrillic: ~{DRAFT_VOCAB_MIB['cyrillic']}) and leaves the rest to the expert cache - and it is the",
+            "  fix when the start stops with \"the draft head does not fit\". The model keeps the choice."]
+
+
 def mtp_corrupt(mtp: Path, env=None) -> bool:
     """#327: True when the MTP tensors an install fetched are not the pinned checkpoint's (tools/mtp_fetch.py verify,
     which hashes only files that changed since they last checked out).  A mirror that ignored range requests left the
@@ -2471,7 +2774,7 @@ def ensure_engine_for(cards, cfg_path: Path, cfg: dict, yes: bool) -> dict:
     build_engine({**main, "archs": archs}, vision, yes, get_llama_cpp())
     dirs = json.loads(info.read_text()).get("cuda_dirs") or []
     cfg["lib_dirs"] = dirs + [d for d in cfg.get("lib_dirs") or [] if d not in dirs]
-    cfg_path.write_text(json.dumps(cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+    write_config(cfg_path, cfg)
     return cfg
 
 
@@ -2567,6 +2870,9 @@ def main() -> int:
     ap.add_argument("--yes", action="store_true", help="accept the recommended answers")
     ap.add_argument("--setup", action="store_true", help="install another model or change settings")
     ap.add_argument("--no-start", action="store_true", help="install only, do not start the model")
+    ap.add_argument("--update", action="store_true",
+                    help="update the installed engine, Python packages and model settings as a start would, without "
+                         "starting the model (UPDATE.bat / update.sh run it after a git pull)")
     ap.add_argument("--build", action="store_true", help="compile the engine instead of using the ready-made one")
     ap.add_argument("--prebuilt", default=os.environ.get("STRATA_PREBUILT_URL", PREBUILT_URL),
                     help="where the ready-made engine is (a URL folder or a local folder)")
@@ -2585,6 +2891,9 @@ def main() -> int:
     ap.add_argument("--resident-budget-gib", type=float, metavar="N",
                     help="UD-Q4_K_XL: the GiB of its experts kept in RAM (default: the RAM less 24 GB, 40 on 64 GB; "
                          "more is kept as you choose, with a note)")
+    ap.add_argument("--vram-reserve-mib", type=int, metavar="N",
+                    help="VRAM in MiB the engine leaves free for other programs (a game, another model; the engine's "
+                         "default: 700); the expert cache takes that much less")
     ap.add_argument("--kv-streaming", choices=["auto", "on", "off"], default="auto",
                     help="from a 64K context: keep the KV cache in RAM and only the attention's window in VRAM (more "
                          "experts fit on the GPU); auto: when the RAM has room for it")
@@ -2595,6 +2904,8 @@ def main() -> int:
     a = ap.parse_args()
     if a.resident_budget_gib is not None and not a.resident_budget_gib > 0:
         ap.error("--resident-budget-gib takes a number of GiB above 0, e.g. --resident-budget-gib 32")
+    if a.vram_reserve_mib is not None and a.vram_reserve_mib < 0:
+        ap.error("--vram-reserve-mib takes a number of MiB, 0 or more, e.g. --vram-reserve-mib 2048")
     if a.gpu is not None:                             # --gpu 0,2 means --gpus 0,2 (a user tried it: issue report)
         if "," in a.gpu:
             a.gpus, a.gpu = a.gpus or a.gpu, None
@@ -2610,6 +2921,8 @@ def main() -> int:
 
     # ---- 0. already installed: just start it
     have = installed_configs()
+    if a.update:                                       # #475: UPDATE.bat / update.sh - never starts the model
+        return update_install(have, a)
     explicit = a.setup or a.model or a.family or a.check or a.no_start
     if not have and not explicit:                      # a new copy of Strata (an update unzipped elsewhere): set it
         prev = previous_config(elsewhere, load_settings())   # up like the last one, from the files already here
@@ -2624,6 +2937,8 @@ def main() -> int:
                 a.experimental_speed_projection = a.experimental_speed_projection or ch["esp"]
                 a.host, a.api_key = a.host or ch["host"], a.api_key or ch["api_key"]
                 a.port = a.port or ch["port"]
+                if a.vram_reserve_mib is None:          # #493: an explicit reserve set up before
+                    a.vram_reserve_mib = ch.get("vram_reserve_mib")
                 if isinstance(ch.get("gpu"), list):     # a layer split: set up across the same cards again
                     a.gpus = a.gpus or ",".join(str(g) for g in ch["gpu"])
                     a.layer_split = a.layer_split or ch.get("layer_split")
@@ -2645,15 +2960,20 @@ def main() -> int:
             for i, c in enumerate(have, 1):
                 say(f"  {i}) {json.loads(c.read_text(encoding='utf-8-sig')).get('model_name', c.stem)}")
             pick_cfg = have[int(ask("Tune which one?", [str(i) for i in range(1, len(have) + 1)], "1", a.yes)) - 1]
-        calibrate_config(pick_cfg)
+        if not calibrate_config(pick_cfg):             # #447: said again where it is not lost above the start
+            say()
+            warn("this PC is NOT tuned: the tuning failed (the reason is above); the model "
+                 + ("keeps" if a.no_start else "starts with") + " the default settings")
         return 0 if a.no_start else start(pick_cfg, a.port, run_gpu, yes=a.yes, layer_split=a.layer_split,
-                     keep={"host": a.host, "api_key": a.api_key, "draft_vocab": a.draft_vocab})
+                     keep={"host": a.host, "api_key": a.api_key, "draft_vocab": a.draft_vocab,
+                           "vram_reserve_mib": a.vram_reserve_mib})
     if have and not (a.setup or a.model or a.family or a.check or a.no_start):
         if not a.build:
             update_installed_engine(a.prebuilt)
         if len(have) == 1:
             return start(have[0], a.port, run_gpu, yes=a.yes, layer_split=a.layer_split,
-                     keep={"host": a.host, "api_key": a.api_key, "draft_vocab": a.draft_vocab})
+                     keep={"host": a.host, "api_key": a.api_key, "draft_vocab": a.draft_vocab,
+                           "vram_reserve_mib": a.vram_reserve_mib})
         say()
         for i, c in enumerate(have, 1):
             say(f"  {i}) {json.loads(c.read_text(encoding='utf-8-sig')).get('model_name', c.stem)}")
@@ -2661,7 +2981,8 @@ def main() -> int:
         pick = int(ask("Which one?", [str(i) for i in range(1, len(have) + 2)], "1", a.yes))
         if pick <= len(have):
             return start(have[pick - 1], a.port, run_gpu, yes=a.yes, layer_split=a.layer_split,
-                     keep={"host": a.host, "api_key": a.api_key, "draft_vocab": a.draft_vocab})
+                     keep={"host": a.host, "api_key": a.api_key, "draft_vocab": a.draft_vocab,
+                           "vram_reserve_mib": a.vram_reserve_mib})
 
     # ---- 1. the PC
     step(1, "checking your PC")
@@ -2794,7 +3115,12 @@ def main() -> int:
     say()
     names = [m for m in MODELS if family in MODELS[m].get("families", ("qwen", "swift"))]
     if a.model and a.model not in names:
-        fail(f"{fam['title']} has no {a.model} model file", "choose one of: " + ", ".join(names))
+        # #444: say which family has that size, and (with --gguf-dir) which files Strata can run at all
+        elsewhere_fams = [f for f in FAMILIES if f in MODELS[a.model].get("families", ("qwen", "swift"))]
+        fail(f"{fam['title']} has no {a.model} model file", "choose one of: " + ", ".join(names)
+             + (f" (or {a.model}: " + ", ".join(f"--family {f} --model {a.model}" for f in elsewhere_fams) + ")"
+                if elsewhere_fams else "")
+             + (f".\n       {SUPPORTED_GGUFS}" if a.gguf_dir else ""))
     for i, m in enumerate(names, 1):
         d = MODELS[m]
         fit = "" if ram >= d["ram_gb"] else f"   <- needs {d['ram_gb']} GB RAM, you have {ram:.0f}"
@@ -2808,10 +3134,11 @@ def main() -> int:
         say(f"  {i}) {m:8s} {d['about']}; download {d['download_gb']:.0f} GB, uses ~{d['arena_gb']:.0f} GB of RAM{fit}")
     rec = str(names.index("IQ3_XXS") + 1) if ram >= 60 and "IQ3_XXS" in names else "1"
     model = a.model or names[int(ask("Which size?", [str(i) for i in range(1, len(names) + 1)], rec, a.yes)) - 1]
-    budget = None
+    budget, q4_split = None, False
     if MODELS[model].get("budget"):
         # Unsloth's UD-Q4_K_XL: a RAM budget of experts, the rest from the GGUF on the SSD - not the low-RAM mode (no
-        # experts.bin: it would be another 77 GB on the disk), and one GPU (the budget mode has no layer split)
+        # experts.bin: it would be another 77 GB on the disk), and one GPU (the budget mode has no layer split) unless
+        # the RAM holds the GGUFs and 24 GB more: then several, without the budget, if asked for (#498)
         warn(f"{model} is EXPERIMENTAL (docs/UNSLOTH_Q4.md): most of its experts are read from the SSD while it "
              "answers, so it is several times slower than the 2-3-bit models; quality checked against llama.cpp")
         if hip:
@@ -2831,12 +3158,13 @@ def main() -> int:
                          "install it anyway", "  Install it anyway?")
             warn(f"installing {model} with {ram:.0f} GB of RAM, as you chose")
         budget = budget_choice(model, ram, a.resident_budget_gib)
-        ok(f"RAM budget: {budget:g} GiB of {model}'s experts in RAM, the rest read from the model files on the SSD")
+        if multi and not unsloth_together(a, model, ram, gpu, chosen):
+            multi, sel, chosen = [], [gpu["index"]], [gpu]
+        q4_split = bool(multi)                         # #498: on several GPUs without the RAM budget
+        if not q4_split:
+            ok(f"RAM budget: {budget:g} GiB of {model}'s experts in RAM, the rest read from the model files on the SSD")
         if a.low_ram not in ("auto", "off"):
             warn(f"--low-ram {a.low_ram} does not apply to {model}: it always reads part of its experts from the files")
-        if multi:
-            warn(f"{model} runs on one GPU: using " + gpu_name(gpu) + " only")
-            multi, sel, chosen = [], [gpu["index"]], [gpu]
     elif a.resident_budget_gib is not None:
         warn(f"--resident-budget-gib is for UD-Q4_K_XL: {model} keeps all of its experts in RAM or in the low-RAM mode")
     low_ram = budget is None and (a.low_ram in ("on", "resident", "mmap") or
@@ -2975,6 +3303,9 @@ def main() -> int:
     models_dir = Path(a.gguf_dir) if a.gguf_dir else Path(a.models_dir) / tag
     shards = gguf_dir_shards(models_dir, fam, model) if a.gguf_dir else \
         [models_dir / fam["file"].format(q=model, i=i) for i in range(1, fam.get("shards", 2) + 1)]
+    problem = gguf_dir_problem(models_dir, shards[0], fam, model) if a.gguf_dir else None
+    if problem:                                        # #444: files Strata cannot run, or another choice's files
+        fail(*problem)
     if not a.gguf_dir and not all(sh.exists() and done(sh) for sh in shards):
         for r in elsewhere:                            # already downloaded in a Strata folder on another drive
             cand = [r / "models" / tag / sh.name for sh in shards]
@@ -3040,6 +3371,13 @@ def main() -> int:
     # ---- 5. the model files
     step(5, f"downloading {fam['title']} {model}")
     if not a.gguf_dir:
+        missing = [s.name for s in shards if not (s.exists() and done(s))]
+        if missing:                                    # #495: files downloaded by hand go here, or --gguf-dir
+            say(f"  The model files go in {models_dir}")
+            say(f"  Files you already have: put them here with their original names ({', '.join(missing)}), or use "
+                "--gguf-dir <their folder>.")
+            if hf_endpoint() != HF_DEFAULT:
+                say(f"  Downloading from {hf_endpoint()} (HF_ENDPOINT)")
         for s in shards:
             if s.exists() and done(s):
                 ok(f"{s.name} already downloaded")
@@ -3112,6 +3450,8 @@ def main() -> int:
     draft_vocab = a.draft_vocab or saved_draft_vocab(ROOT / f"strata-{tag.lower()}.json")
     refresh_draft_vocab(rt, draft_vocab or "cjk")
     ok(f"MTP draft layer: {rt}")
+    for line in draft_vocab_note(gpu.get("vram_gb", 0.0), draft_vocab):   # #474: a recommendation, nothing changes
+        say("  " + line)
 
     # ---- 7. the start script
     step(7, "writing the start script")
@@ -3163,7 +3503,9 @@ def main() -> int:
             warn(f"KV streaming needs ~{kv_ram_gb:.1f} GB of RAM beside the ~{MODELS[model]['ram_gb']} GB {model} "
                  f"uses; this PC has {ram:.0f}. Kept as you chose (--kv-streaming on): it may page or run out of RAM "
                  "under load")
-        if budget is not None and a.resident_budget_gib is None:   # its RAM comes out of the experts' budget
+        if q4_split:                                   # #498: no budget to take it out of
+            pass
+        elif budget is not None and a.resident_budget_gib is None:   # its RAM comes out of the experts' budget
             budget = resident_budget_gib(model, ram, kv_ram_gb)
             ok(f"RAM budget: {budget} GiB (less the KV cache's RAM)")
         elif budget is not None and budget > resident_budget_gib(model, ram, kv_ram_gb):
@@ -3171,10 +3513,21 @@ def main() -> int:
                  f"would take them out of it: {resident_budget_gib(model, ram, kv_ram_gb)} GiB); kept as you chose")
     elif a.kv_streaming == "on":
         warn("--kv-streaming on: a context under 64K is not streamed (the attention's window holds all of it): off")
-    if budget is not None:     # UD-Q4_K_XL: the experts read from the GGUF in place, the most-used N GiB kept in RAM
-        args += ["--resident-budget-gib", f"{budget:g}"]
+    if budget is not None and not q4_split:   # UD-Q4_K_XL: the experts read from the GGUF in place, the most-used N
+        args += ["--resident-budget-gib", f"{budget:g}"]   # GiB kept in RAM (#498: a layer split has no budget)
     if vision != "none":
         args += ["--vision", "--vram-reserve-mib", str(VISION[vision]["reserve_mib"])]
+    if a.vram_reserve_mib is not None:                 # #493: VRAM left free for other programs (only when given)
+        if "--vram-reserve-mib" in args:
+            i = args.index("--vram-reserve-mib") + 1
+            if vision == "gpu" and a.vram_reserve_mib < int(args[i]):
+                warn(f"--vram-reserve-mib {a.vram_reserve_mib}: the image encoder on the GPU needs ~{args[i]} MiB of "
+                     "it; kept as you chose (it may run out of VRAM when it reads a picture)")
+            args[i] = str(a.vram_reserve_mib)
+        else:
+            args += ["--vram-reserve-mib", str(a.vram_reserve_mib)]
+        ok(f"VRAM kept free for other programs: {a.vram_reserve_mib} MiB (--vram-reserve-mib; the expert cache takes "
+           "that much less)")
     if esp is not None:
         # the package's profile, with llama.cpp's flags (the engine takes the same ones)
         args += ["--control-vector-scaled", f"{esp}:1.0", "--control-vector-layer-range", "4", "44",
@@ -3217,13 +3570,15 @@ def main() -> int:
         import calibrate as CAL
         cfg["args"] = CAL.apply(cfg["args"], cal.get("settings") or {})
         ok("the settings tuned for this PC earlier are used" + (f" ({cal['date']})" if cal.get("date") else ""))
-    cfg_path.write_text(json.dumps(cfg, indent=1), encoding="utf-8")
+    write_config(cfg_path, cfg)
     script = write_run_script(tag, cfg_path, port)
     # offered only when someone answers: --yes installs and adopted earlier installs are not held up by it
     if cal is None and not hip and not a.no_start and not a.yes and ask(
             "Tune Strata for this PC now? It measures a few engine settings (about 5-10 minutes; the PC is busy "
             "meanwhile; later: START-HERE --calibrate)", ["y", "n"], "y", a.yes) == "y":
-        calibrate_config(cfg_path)
+        tuned = calibrate_config(cfg_path)
+    else:
+        tuned = None                                   # not asked for: nothing to repeat below
     ok(f"start script: {script.name}")
 
     say()
@@ -3236,6 +3591,9 @@ def main() -> int:
     say(f"  Next time:        just run {'START-HERE.bat' if WIN else './setup.sh'} (or {script.name}) - it starts right away")
     if vision != "none":
         say("  Images:           send them in the chat page, in chat.py (/image <path>) or over the API")
+    if tuned is False:                                 # #447: a failed tuning is repeated here, not only above
+        say("  Tuning:           FAILED (the reason is above): the default settings stay - "
+            f"{'START-HERE.bat' if WIN else './setup.sh'} --calibrate tries again")
     if a.no_start:
         return 0
     return start(cfg_path, port)

src/core/device.cu

@@ -101,6 +101,97 @@ bool device_summary(int ordinal, std::string& name, std::string& detail) {
     return true;
 }
 
+}  // namespace strata::core
+
+#if defined(STRATA_USE_HIP) && defined(_WIN32)
+// The free VRAM figure on Windows HIP (include/strata/hip_compat/cuda_runtime.h maps cudaMemGetInfo here).
+//
+// hipMemGetInfo (ROCclr's PAL backend, Device::globalFreeMemory) is the card's size minus this process's own
+// allocations: it asks Windows for this process's usage only, never for what the desktop and other programs hold.
+// So on a card that also drives the desktop the engine counted ~930 MiB that was not there, the expert cache filled
+// the card, and WDDM moved memory out to system RAM: decode at 30 tok/s instead of 41 (RX 6800, HIP SDK 7.2).
+// Windows itself gives each process a video memory budget (DXGI QueryVideoMemoryInfo) that does account for the
+// others.  Measured on that card: the budget sits 0.8 GiB below the card's size while this process is small and
+// 1.8 GiB below once it holds 11 GiB; allocations past it still succeed, and are what Windows moves out.  The
+// free figure here is hipMemGetInfo's lowered by what the budget withholds (the card's size minus the budget).
+// Subtracting from HIP's own figure, rather than taking the budget minus DXGI's usage, keeps memory the HIP runtime
+// has freed and holds in its cache counted as free, as hipMemGetInfo counts it.  dxgi.dll is loaded at run time, so
+// nothing new is linked; when it or the card's adapter cannot be found, hipMemGetInfo's figure stands.
+#ifndef WIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN
+#define WIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN
+#endif
+#ifndef NOMINMAX
+#define NOMINMAX
+#endif
+#include <windows.h>
+#include <dxgi1_4.h>
+#include <atomic>
+#include <cstdlib>
+#include <mutex>
+
+namespace strata::hip_compat {
+namespace {
+IDXGIAdapter3* budget_adapter(int device) {
+    constexpr int kMaxDevices = 16;
+    static std::mutex mu;
+    static IDXGIAdapter3* adapters[kMaxDevices] = {};
+    static bool tried[kMaxDevices] = {};
+    if (device < 0 || device >= kMaxDevices) return nullptr;
+    std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(mu);
+    if (tried[device]) return adapters[device];
+    tried[device] = true;
+    hipDeviceProp_t p{};
+    if (hipGetDeviceProperties(&p, device) != hipSuccess) {
+        (void) hipGetLastError();
+        return nullptr;
+    }
+    LUID luid{};
+    std::memcpy(&luid, p.luid, sizeof luid);
+    using CreateFactory = HRESULT(WINAPI*)(REFIID, void**);
+    static HMODULE dxgi = LoadLibraryW(L"dxgi.dll");   // kept for the process' lifetime, like the adapters
+    const auto create = dxgi ? (CreateFactory) (void*) GetProcAddress(dxgi, "CreateDXGIFactory1") : nullptr;
+    IDXGIFactory4* factory = nullptr;
+    if (create == nullptr || FAILED(create(__uuidof(IDXGIFactory4), (void**) &factory))) return nullptr;
+    IDXGIAdapter3* adapter = nullptr;
+    if (FAILED(factory->EnumAdapterByLuid(luid, __uuidof(IDXGIAdapter3), (void**) &adapter))) adapter = nullptr;
+    factory->Release();
+    adapters[device] = adapter;
+    return adapter;
+}
+}  // namespace
+
+hipError_t mem_get_info(size_t* free_bytes, size_t* total_bytes) {
+    const hipError_t e = hipMemGetInfo(free_bytes, total_bytes);
+    static const bool off = [] {
+        const char* v = std::getenv("STRATA_WDDM_BUDGET");
+        return v != nullptr && std::atoi(v) == 0;
+    }();
+    if (e != hipSuccess || off || free_bytes == nullptr || total_bytes == nullptr) return e;
+    int device = 0;
+    if (hipGetDevice(&device) != hipSuccess) {
+        (void) hipGetLastError();
+        return e;
+    }
+    IDXGIAdapter3* adapter = budget_adapter(device);
+    DXGI_QUERY_VIDEO_MEMORY_INFO local{};
+    if (adapter == nullptr || FAILED(adapter->QueryVideoMemoryInfo(0, DXGI_MEMORY_SEGMENT_GROUP_LOCAL, &local)) ||
+        local.Budget == 0 || local.Budget >= *total_bytes)
+        return e;
+    const size_t withheld = *total_bytes - (size_t) local.Budget;   // the desktop's and other programs' share
+    static std::atomic<bool> said{false};
+    if (!said.exchange(true)) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "strata: Windows budgets %llu of this card's %llu MiB for this process; free VRAM is "
+                             "counted within that (STRATA_WDDM_BUDGET=0: off)\n",
+                     (unsigned long long) (local.Budget >> 20), (unsigned long long) (*total_bytes >> 20));
+    }
+    *free_bytes = *free_bytes > withheld ? *free_bytes - withheld : 0;
+    return e;
+}
+}  // namespace strata::hip_compat
+#endif
+
+namespace strata::core {
+
 std::string gpu_arch_problem(int ordinal) {
 #if defined(STRATA_USE_HIP)
     int count = 0;

src/core/device_main.cpp

@@ -9,6 +9,12 @@
 #include <cstdio>
 #include <cstring>
 #include <string>
+#if defined(STRATA_USE_HIP) && defined(_WIN32)
+#ifndef NOMINMAX
+#define NOMINMAX
+#endif
+#include <windows.h>
+#endif
 
 static std::string human(uint64_t b) {
     char buf[64];
@@ -68,6 +74,13 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
         std::printf("  multiprocessors     %d\n", d.multi_processor_count);
         std::printf("  VRAM total / free   %s / %s\n", human(d.total_bytes).c_str(), human(d.free_bytes).c_str());
         std::printf("  driver / runtime    %d / %d\n", d.driver_version, d.runtime_version);
+#if defined(STRATA_USE_HIP) && defined(_WIN32)
+        // #468 #461: which HIP runtime this process loaded - the one beside the exe, or an AMD driver's System32 copy
+        if (HMODULE h = GetModuleHandleA("amdhip64_7.dll")) {
+            char path[MAX_PATH] = {};
+            if (GetModuleFileNameA(h, path, MAX_PATH) > 0) std::printf("  HIP runtime         %s\n", path);
+        }
+#endif
 
         // The planner's view against the card's.  A plan that does not fit in what is actually FREE is the
         // failure this print exists to make visible at startup rather than at token 4000.

src/core/expert_cache.cpp

@@ -3,7 +3,9 @@
 
 #include <cuda_runtime.h>
 
+#include <algorithm>
 #include <cstdio>
+#include <filesystem>
 #include <utility>
 #include <cstring>
 
@@ -67,6 +69,77 @@ bool read_expert_profile(const std::string& path, int64_t n_layers, int64_t n_ex
     return true;
 }
 
+std::vector<std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>> rank_learned_profile(int64_t n_layers, int64_t n_expert,
+                                                              const std::vector<uint8_t>& resident,
+                                                              const std::vector<double>& heat,
+                                                              const std::vector<std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>>& prior) {
+    const size_t n = (size_t) (n_layers * n_expert);
+    std::vector<int64_t> prior_rank(n, INT64_MAX);
+    for (size_t r = 0; r < prior.size(); ++r) {
+        const auto [l, e] = prior[r];
+        if (l >= 0 && l < n_layers && e >= 0 && e < n_expert) {
+            int64_t& pr = prior_rank[(size_t) (l * n_expert + e)];
+            if (pr == INT64_MAX) pr = (int64_t) r;
+        }
+    }
+    std::vector<int64_t> order(n);
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < n; ++i) order[i] = (int64_t) i;
+    auto res = [&](int64_t i) { return (size_t) i < resident.size() && resident[(size_t) i] != 0; };
+    auto ht = [&](int64_t i) { return (size_t) i < heat.size() ? heat[(size_t) i] : 0.0; };
+    std::stable_sort(order.begin(), order.end(), [&](int64_t a, int64_t b) {
+        if (res(a) != res(b)) return res(a);
+        if (ht(a) != ht(b)) return ht(a) > ht(b);
+        if (prior_rank[(size_t) a] != prior_rank[(size_t) b]) return prior_rank[(size_t) a] < prior_rank[(size_t) b];
+        return a < b;
+    });
+    std::vector<std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>> ranked(n);
+    for (size_t r = 0; r < n; ++r)
+        ranked[r] = {(int32_t) (order[r] / n_expert), (int32_t) (order[r] % n_expert)};
+    return ranked;
+}
+
+bool write_expert_profile(const std::string& path, int64_t n_layers, int64_t n_expert,
+                          const std::vector<std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>>& ranked, std::string& err) {
+    if (n_layers <= 0 || n_expert <= 0 || n_layers > 65535 || n_expert > 65535) {
+        err = "write_expert_profile: the model's layout does not fit the format";
+        return false;
+    }
+    std::vector<int32_t> table((size_t) (n_layers * n_expert), -1);
+    std::vector<uint16_t> pairs;
+    pairs.reserve(ranked.size() * 2);
+    for (size_t r = 0; r < ranked.size(); ++r) {
+        const auto [l, e] = ranked[r];
+        if (l < 0 || l >= n_layers || e < 0 || e >= n_expert) {
+            err = "write_expert_profile: a ranked pair is out of range";
+            return false;
+        }
+        table[(size_t) (l * n_expert + e)] = (int32_t) r;
+        pairs.push_back((uint16_t) l);
+        pairs.push_back((uint16_t) e);
+    }
+    const uint32_t hdr[5] = {1u, (uint32_t) n_layers, (uint32_t) n_expert, (uint32_t) ranked.size(),
+                             (uint32_t) ranked.size()};
+    const std::string tmp = path + ".tmp";
+    std::FILE* f = std::fopen(tmp.c_str(), "wb");
+    if (f == nullptr) {
+        err = "write_expert_profile: cannot create " + tmp;
+        return false;
+    }
+    // the format is little-endian (make_profile.py's "<"): so is every machine this engine runs on
+    bool ok = std::fwrite("STRP", 1, 4, f) == 4 && std::fwrite(hdr, 4, 5, f) == 5 &&
+              (pairs.empty() || std::fwrite(pairs.data(), 2, pairs.size(), f) == pairs.size()) &&
+              std::fwrite(table.data(), 4, table.size(), f) == table.size();
+    ok = (std::fclose(f) == 0) && ok;
+    std::error_code ec;
+    if (ok) std::filesystem::rename(tmp, path, ec);   // replaces an existing file (MoveFileEx / rename(2))
+    if (!ok || ec) {
+        std::filesystem::remove(tmp, ec);
+        err = "write_expert_profile: cannot write " + path;
+        return false;
+    }
+    return true;
+}
+
 ExpertCache::~ExpertCache() { close(); }
 
 #if defined(STRATA_USE_HIP)

src/core/expert_source.cpp

@@ -1024,6 +1024,22 @@ bool FileExpertSource::pin_cache_complement(
     uint64_t bytes = 0;
     if (!detail::make_cache_complement_plan(n_layers_, n_expert_, layer_blob_bytes_, primary_gpu_pairs,
                                             additional_gpu_pairs, offsets, bytes, err)) return false;
+#if defined(_WIN32)
+    // #467: the GPU cache's pre-fill touched its experts through the mapping (~19 GiB on a 24 GB card), and Windows
+    // counts those file pages in this process's working set, not as available: a 32 GB PC read 0.44 GiB here
+    // (20.7 GiB before the start).  Trimmed, they move to the standby list (still cached, counted as available).
+    // Resident mode only: nothing else calls this function.  Locked/pinned pages stay; the rest fault back softly.
+    {
+        uint64_t before = 0, after = 0;
+        const bool read_before = available_memory_bytes(before);
+        (void) SetProcessWorkingSetSize(GetCurrentProcess(), (SIZE_T) -1, (SIZE_T) -1);
+        if (read_before && available_memory_bytes(after))
+            std::fprintf(stderr, "FileExpertSource: available RAM %.2f GiB, %.2f GiB after the mapped experts left the "
+                                 "process working set (#467)\n",
+                         (double) before / 1073741824.0, (double) after / 1073741824.0);
+    }
+#endif
+    const bool what_fits = budget_bytes == kResidentWhatFits;   // #467: the soft mode's second try
     uint64_t budget_physical = 0;   // #403: the RAM reading a budget was sized from (0: no budget)
     if (budget_bytes > 0) {
         // CS-T: a RAM budget.  The complement's experts in `rank` order (the expert profile, hottest first) while
@@ -1041,10 +1057,16 @@ bool FileExpertSource::pin_cache_complement(
             // lower).  An unclamped budget is unchanged.
             const uint64_t margin = 256ull << 20;
             const uint64_t clamped = room > margin ? room - margin : 0;
-            std::fprintf(stderr, "FileExpertSource: --resident-budget-gib %.2f is more than the RAM has room for "
-                                 "(%.2f GiB available minus %.0f GiB headroom and a 0.25 GiB margin): %.2f GiB\n",
-                         (double) budget_bytes / 1073741824.0, (double) physical / 1073741824.0,
-                         (double) headroom_bytes / 1073741824.0, (double) clamped / 1073741824.0);
+            if (what_fits)
+                std::fprintf(stderr, "FileExpertSource: RAM room for the complement: %.2f GiB (%.2f GiB available "
+                                     "minus %.0f GiB headroom and a 0.25 GiB margin)\n",
+                             (double) clamped / 1073741824.0, (double) physical / 1073741824.0,
+                             (double) headroom_bytes / 1073741824.0);
+            else
+                std::fprintf(stderr, "FileExpertSource: --resident-budget-gib %.2f is more than the RAM has room for "
+                                     "(%.2f GiB available minus %.0f GiB headroom and a 0.25 GiB margin): %.2f GiB\n",
+                             (double) budget_bytes / 1073741824.0, (double) physical / 1073741824.0,
+                             (double) headroom_bytes / 1073741824.0, (double) clamped / 1073741824.0);
             budget_bytes = clamped;
         }
         std::vector<uint64_t> ranked(offsets.size(), kNoComplement);
@@ -1061,6 +1083,10 @@ bool FileExpertSource::pin_cache_complement(
                 at += b;
                 ++held;
             }
+        if (what_fits && held == 0) {   // #467: nothing to keep - the caller's plain mmap fallback, not an empty copy
+            err = "FileExpertSource: the RAM has no room for any expert of the complement";
+            return false;
+        }
         std::fprintf(stderr, "FileExpertSource: RAM budget %.2f GiB: %lld of the %.2f GiB of experts the GPU cache does "
                              "not hold, by profile rank; the rest are read from the files\n",
                      (double) budget_bytes / 1073741824.0, (long long) held, (double) bytes / 1073741824.0);

src/core/mtp.cpp

@@ -372,6 +372,45 @@ void MtpDrafter::set_draft_history(const int32_t* tail, int64_t n_tail, int32_t
     coupled_hist_base(tail, n_tail, next, h, h_chist_ + (kCoupledHistCap - h));
 }
 
+namespace {
+// #474: what to change when the draft head's token subset does not fit the VRAM left - a smaller subset that setup
+// ships (data/draft_vocab_*.bin; their token counts below), and how to pick it.  The start used to stop at "the draft
+// head does not fit" with no hint.  Text only, after the failure: nothing changes for a start that fits.
+void draft_head_hint(int64_t n_tokens, int64_t row_bytes) {
+    size_t free_b = 0, total_b = 0;
+    const bool have_free = cudaMemGetInfo(&free_b, &total_b) == cudaSuccess;
+    auto mib = [&](int64_t n) { return (double) (n * row_bytes) / 1048576.0; };
+    std::string free_s;
+    if (have_free) {
+        char b[64];
+        std::snprintf(b, sizeof(b), " and %.0f MiB is free", (double) free_b / 1048576.0);
+        free_s = b;
+    }
+    std::fprintf(stderr, "strata mtp: the draft head over %lld tokens needs %.0f MiB of VRAM%s.\n",
+                 (long long) n_tokens, mib(n_tokens), free_s.c_str());
+    struct Subset { const char* name; int64_t tokens; const char* what; };
+    static const Subset smaller[] = {{"cyrillic", 58963, "English, code and the Cyrillic script"},
+                                     {"en", 40525, "English and code"}};
+    std::string opts;
+    for (const Subset& s : smaller)
+        if (s.tokens < n_tokens) {
+            char b[160];
+            std::snprintf(b, sizeof(b), "%s--draft-vocab %s (%s, ~%.0f MiB)", opts.empty() ? "" : " or ", s.name,
+                          s.what, mib(s.tokens));
+            opts += b;
+        }
+    if (!opts.empty())
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "strata mtp: hint: a smaller draft vocabulary needs less VRAM: %s. Start once with it - "
+                             "START-HERE.bat --draft-vocab en (Windows) or ./setup.sh --draft-vocab en - and the model "
+                             "keeps it (\"draft_vocab\" in its strata-*.json config); or a smaller --context in "
+                             "setup.\n",
+                     opts.c_str());
+    else
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "strata mtp: hint: this is already the smallest shipped draft vocabulary: a smaller "
+                             "--context (or closing what else uses the GPU) leaves it room.\n");
+}
+}  // namespace
+
 bool MtpDrafter::bind(const WeightTable& wt, const NativeHead* head, const float* window_R, std::string& err) {
     const OnDevice on_device(device_);
     wt_ = &wt;
@@ -395,6 +434,7 @@ bool MtpDrafter::bind(const WeightTable& wt, const NativeHead* head, const float
             if (cudaMalloc((void**) &dvocab_, raw.size()) != cudaSuccess ||
                 cudaMalloc((void**) &dhead_, (size_t) (n_dvocab_ * row_bytes)) != cudaSuccess) {
                 err = "mtp: the draft head does not fit";
+                draft_head_hint(n_dvocab_, row_bytes);
                 return false;
             }
             cudaMemcpy(dvocab_, raw.data(), raw.size(), cudaMemcpyHostToDevice);

src/kernels/cuda/qsa_select.cu

@@ -644,6 +644,229 @@ __global__ void __launch_bounds__(SCORE_WARPS * 32) block_scores_multi_kernel(co
         }
     }
 }
+
+#if !defined(__HIPCC__)
+// ---- the decode top-k on a thread-block cluster (sm_90+; S19).  One CTA per query (block_topk_reg_kernel, or
+// block_topk_kernel above 33,792 blocks: a --max-context over ~135K) makes four radix passes and two scans over up to
+// 65,538 blocks on ONE SM while the rest of the GPU idles - a decode window has 1-5 queries.  Here a cluster of CL_N
+// CTAs shares a query: CTA r holds the keys of blocks [r * per, (r + 1) * per) in shared memory, builds the digit
+// histogram of its keys, and PUSHES it into slot r of every CTA's `hin` (distributed shared memory); after one cluster
+// barrier each CTA sums the CL_N slots itself, so all of them take the same digit.  The emit pass needs each CTA's
+// cells above / at the threshold: pushed the same way, then each CTA offsets its own by the ranks before it.
+// RTX 5070, per call at capacity = context (decode_cluster_parity --bench): 21.9 -> 15.6 us at 32K, 58 -> 18 at 128K,
+// 200 -> 22 at 262K (the one-CTA kernels' digit search was serial, too: one thread over 256 bins per pass).
+//
+// IDENTICAL IDS, by construction rather than by luck: the threshold thr (the width-th largest key, cells counted with
+// their weights) and `above` (cells with a larger key) are pure functions of the multiset of (key, weight) - integer
+// histograms, summed in any order - and the digit rule is block_topk_kernel's, written as a scan (the largest digit d
+// whose cells at or above it reach `need`; 0 when none). The cells emitted are then fixed: every cell of a block with
+// key > thr, and the first eq_budget = width - above cells at thr in ascending order (a block at thr may be cut),
+// written in ascending cell order. Position of a thread's first cell = (cells above thr before it) + min(cells at thr
+// before it, eq_budget): the telescoped sum of the reference's per-thread clamp. NaN keys are 0 (order_key) as there.
+//
+// Barriers: barrier.cluster arrive / wait (each CTA's threads all take part; it also orders the CTA's own shared
+// memory, so it doubles as __syncthreads). Phase 0 is a relaxed arrive at entry, waited before the first remote store
+// (a CTA's shared memory exists once it runs). Pushes go out before the arrive that releases them, and nothing reads
+// another CTA's memory after the last wait - so a CTA may exit without a closing barrier (a wait counts the threads
+// that have not exited). `hin` alternates by pass parity: CTA x reads slot buffer p&1 in pass p before arriving at
+// pass p+1's barrier, and nobody writes buffer p&1 again (pass p+2) before waiting on that barrier.
+constexpr int CL_N = 8;        // CTAs per query (the portable cluster size)
+constexpr int CL_T = 1024;     // threads per CTA
+constexpr int CL_MAXQ = 16;    // larger calls (prefill sub-batches) fill the GPU with one CTA per query already
+#if defined(__CUDA_ARCH__) && __CUDA_ARCH__ >= 900
+#define STRATA_SEL_CLUSTER 1
+#else
+#define STRATA_SEL_CLUSTER 0   // an older target's code is a trap; qsa_block_topk_cluster never launches it there
+#endif
+
+#if STRATA_SEL_CLUSTER
+__device__ __forceinline__ void cl_arrive_relaxed() {
+    asm volatile("barrier.cluster.arrive.relaxed.aligned;\n" ::: "memory");
+}
+__device__ __forceinline__ void cl_arrive() { asm volatile("barrier.cluster.arrive.release.aligned;\n" ::: "memory"); }
+__device__ __forceinline__ void cl_wait() { asm volatile("barrier.cluster.wait.acquire.aligned;\n" ::: "memory"); }
+__device__ __forceinline__ unsigned cl_rank() {
+    unsigned r;
+    asm volatile("mov.u32 %0, %%cluster_ctarank;\n" : "=r"(r));
+    return r;
+}
+template <typename T> __device__ __forceinline__ T* cl_map(T* p, unsigned rank) {   // p in CTA `rank`'s shared memory
+    uint64_t o;
+    asm volatile("mapa.u64 %0, %1, %2;\n" : "=l"(o) : "l"((uint64_t) p), "r"(rank));
+    return reinterpret_cast<T*>(o);
+}
+// exclusive block scan of a 64-bit value over CL_T threads; `total` = the CTA's sum
+__device__ __forceinline__ unsigned long long cl_excl_scan64(unsigned long long v, unsigned long long* s_warp,
+                                                             unsigned long long& total) {
+    const int lane = threadIdx.x & 31, warp = threadIdx.x >> 5;
+    unsigned long long x = v;
+#pragma unroll
+    for (int o = 1; o < 32; o <<= 1) {
+        const unsigned long long y = __shfl_up_sync(0xffffffffu, x, o);
+        if (lane >= o) x += y;
+    }
+    if (lane == 31) s_warp[warp] = x;
+    __syncthreads();
+    if (warp == 0) {
+        const unsigned long long w = s_warp[lane];
+        unsigned long long z = w;
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int o = 1; o < 32; o <<= 1) {
+            const unsigned long long y = __shfl_up_sync(0xffffffffu, z, o);
+            if (lane >= o) z += y;
+        }
+        s_warp[lane] = z - w;
+        if (lane == 31) s_warp[32] = z;
+    }
+    __syncthreads();
+    total = s_warp[32];
+    return s_warp[warp] + x - v;
+}
+#endif
+
+// grid (CL_N, nq), cluster (CL_N, 1, 1), CL_T threads, dynamic shared memory: ceil(max_blocks / CL_N) keys
+__global__ void __launch_bounds__(CL_T) block_topk_cluster_kernel(const float* __restrict__ scores,
+                                                                  const int32_t* __restrict__ steps, int64_t max_blocks,
+                                                                  int64_t cap, int32_t* __restrict__ ids) {
+#if STRATA_SEL_CLUSTER
+    extern __shared__ uint32_t keys[];                  // this CTA's blocks' keys
+    __shared__ __align__(16) int hin[2][CL_N][256];     // the cluster's histograms, slot = the pushing rank
+    __shared__ __align__(16) int hloc[2][256];          // this CTA's histogram
+    __shared__ unsigned long long cnt[CL_N];            // per rank: its cells above thr (low 32 bits) and at it (high)
+    __shared__ unsigned long long s_warp[33];
+    __shared__ uint32_t s_prefix;
+    __shared__ int s_above;
+    const unsigned rank = cl_rank();
+    const int t = threadIdx.x, lane = t & 31, warp = t >> 5;
+    cl_arrive_relaxed();                                // phase 0: this CTA runs
+    const int64_t qi = blockIdx.y;
+    const int32_t* st = steps + qi * kStepCount;
+    const int64_t n_kv = st[kStepNKv], n_bid = st[kStepNBid], width = st[kStepWidth];
+    int32_t* out = ids + qi * cap;
+    if (n_kv <= width) {                                // the identity, split over the cluster; no remote access
+        for (int64_t j = (int64_t) rank * CL_T + t; j < n_kv; j += (int64_t) CL_N * CL_T) out[j] = (int32_t) j;
+        return;
+    }
+    // the tail block n_bid weighs its cells (0..3); with none it is not a candidate (the reference skips w == 0)
+    const int wtail = (int) (n_kv - n_bid * R);
+    const int64_t nbe = n_bid + (wtail > 0 ? 1 : 0);
+    const int64_t per = (nbe + CL_N - 1) / CL_N;       // <= ceil(max_blocks / CL_N), the keys the host sized
+    const int64_t lo = (int64_t) rank * per < nbe ? (int64_t) rank * per : nbe;
+    const int64_t hi = lo + per < nbe ? lo + per : nbe;
+    const int n = (int) (hi - lo);
+    const int tail_i = (wtail > 0 && n_bid >= lo && n_bid < hi) ? (int) (n_bid - lo) : -1;
+    const float* sc = scores + qi * max_blocks + lo;
+    for (int i = t; i < n; i += CL_T) keys[i] = order_key(sc[i]);
+    for (int i = t; i < 2 * 256; i += CL_T) (&hloc[0][0])[i] = 0;
+    __syncthreads();
+    uint32_t prefix = 0;
+    int above = 0;                                      // cells strictly above the digits fixed so far
+    for (int pass = 0; pass < 4; ++pass) {
+        const int shift = 24 - 8 * pass;
+        const uint32_t hmask = pass == 0 ? 0u : (0xffffffffu << (shift + 8));
+        int* hl = hloc[pass & 1];
+        // warp-aggregated: the scores share their top bits, so plain atomics would queue on a few bins
+        for (int i0 = 0; i0 < n; i0 += CL_T) {
+            const int i = i0 + t;
+            int bin = -1;
+            if (i < n) {
+                const uint32_t k = keys[i];
+                if ((k & hmask) == prefix) bin = (int) ((k >> shift) & 255);
+            }
+            const unsigned same = __match_any_sync(0xffffffffu, bin);
+            if (bin >= 0 && lane == __ffs(same) - 1) atomicAdd(&hl[bin], __popc(same) * R);
+            if (bin >= 0 && i == tail_i) atomicAdd(&hl[bin], wtail - R);
+        }
+        __syncthreads();
+        if (pass == 0) cl_wait();                       // phase 0 done: every CTA's shared memory is there
+        for (int i = t; i < CL_N * 64; i += CL_T) {     // the histogram into slot `rank` of every CTA, as int4
+            const int dst = i >> 6, c = i & 63;
+            *cl_map(reinterpret_cast<int4*>(&hin[pass & 1][rank][0]) + c, (unsigned) dst) =
+                reinterpret_cast<const int4*>(hl)[c];
+        }
+        for (int i = t; i < 256; i += CL_T) hloc[(pass + 1) & 1][i] = 0;
+        cl_arrive();
+        cl_wait();
+        if (warp == 0) {
+            // lane L owns digits 255 - 8L down to 248 - 8L; the digit holding the need-th cell from the top
+            const int need = (int) width - above;
+            int tot[8], part = 0;
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int k = 0; k < 8; ++k) {
+                const int d = 255 - 8 * lane - k;
+                int v = 0;
+#pragma unroll
+                for (int r = 0; r < CL_N; ++r) v += hin[pass & 1][r][d];
+                tot[k] = v;
+                part += v;
+            }
+            int incl = part;
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int o = 1; o < 32; o <<= 1) {
+                const int y = __shfl_up_sync(0xffffffffu, incl, o);
+                if (lane >= o) incl += y;
+            }
+            const int excl = incl - part;
+            const unsigned hit = __ballot_sync(0xffffffffu, excl < need && incl >= need);
+            // no hit cannot happen (the cells total n_kv > width); the reference would then take digit 0
+            const int who = hit ? __ffs(hit) - 1 : 31;
+            if (lane == who) {
+                int acc = excl, k = 0;
+                for (; k < 7; ++k) {
+                    if (acc + tot[k] >= need) break;
+                    acc += tot[k];
+                }
+                s_prefix = prefix | ((uint32_t) (255 - 8 * lane - k) << shift);
+                s_above = above + acc;
+            }
+        }
+        __syncthreads();
+        prefix = s_prefix;
+        above = s_above;
+    }
+    const uint32_t thr = prefix;
+    const int64_t eq_budget = width - above;           // cells at thr that fit, lowest index first
+    // each thread a contiguous run of the CTA's keys; an odd run length keeps the shared reads conflict-free
+    int seg = (n + CL_T - 1) / CL_T;
+    if ((seg & 1) == 0 && seg > 0) ++seg;
+    const int s0 = t * seg < n ? t * seg : n, s1 = s0 + seg < n ? s0 + seg : n;
+    uint32_t gt = 0, eq = 0;
+    for (int i = s0; i < s1; ++i) {
+        const uint32_t k = keys[i], w = i == tail_i ? (uint32_t) wtail : (uint32_t) R;
+        if (k > thr) gt += w;
+        else if (k == thr) eq += w;
+    }
+    unsigned long long cta;
+    const unsigned long long before =
+        cl_excl_scan64((unsigned long long) gt | ((unsigned long long) eq << 32), s_warp, cta);
+    if (t < CL_N) *cl_map(&cnt[rank], (unsigned) t) = cta;
+    cl_arrive();
+    cl_wait();
+    int64_t gt_off = 0, eq_off = 0;
+    for (unsigned r = 0; r < rank; ++r) {
+        gt_off += (int64_t) (cnt[r] & 0xffffffffu);
+        eq_off += (int64_t) (cnt[r] >> 32);
+    }
+    const int64_t eq_before = eq_off + (int64_t) (before >> 32);
+    int64_t wpos = gt_off + (int64_t) (before & 0xffffffffu) + (eq_before < eq_budget ? eq_before : eq_budget);
+    int64_t eq_left = eq_budget - eq_before;
+    if (eq_left < 0) eq_left = 0;
+    for (int i = s0; i < s1; ++i) {
+        const uint32_t k = keys[i];
+        const int w = i == tail_i ? wtail : R;
+        const int64_t b = lo + i;
+        if (k > thr) {
+            for (int c = 0; c < w; ++c) out[wpos++] = (int32_t) (b * R + c);
+        } else if (k == thr) {
+            for (int c = 0; c < w && eq_left > 0; ++c, --eq_left) out[wpos++] = (int32_t) (b * R + c);
+        }
+    }
+#else
+    (void) scores; (void) steps; (void) max_blocks; (void) cap; (void) ids;
+    __trap();
+#endif
+}
+#endif  // !__HIPCC__
 }  // namespace
 
 void qsa_block_scores(const float* pooled, const float* dead, const float* q_idx, const int32_t* steps, int64_t nq,
@@ -745,12 +968,88 @@ void qsa_block_topk_ref(const float* scores, const int32_t* steps, int64_t nq, i
     if (e != cudaSuccess) { std::fprintf(stderr, "qsa_block_topk: %s\n", cudaGetErrorString(e)); std::exit(1); }
 }
 
+bool qsa_block_topk_cluster(const float* scores, const int32_t* steps, int64_t nq, int64_t max_blocks, int64_t cap,
+                            const QsaShapes& s, int32_t* ids, void* stream) {
+#if defined(__HIPCC__)
+    (void) scores; (void) steps; (void) nq; (void) max_blocks; (void) cap; (void) s; (void) ids; (void) stream;
+    return false;
+#else
+    if (nq <= 0) return true;
+    if (s.idx_block != R || cap < qsa_selection_width(kTopkMaxCells, s) || nq > 65535 || max_blocks <= 0) return false;
+    const size_t smem = (size_t) ((max_blocks + CL_N - 1) / CL_N) * sizeof(uint32_t);
+    // Per device (a layer split runs on several): 1 the cluster kernel runs here, 2 it does not. It needs sm_90+ (the
+    // card's, or STRATA_EMULATE_CC's) AND code built for it: a build with only older code JIT-compiles their PTX, whose
+    // copy of this kernel is a trap - the function's PTX version says which. `opt`: the dynamic shared memory opted in.
+    static int ok[64] = {};
+    static size_t opt[64] = {};
+    int dev = 0;
+    if (cudaGetDevice(&dev) != cudaSuccess || dev < 0 || dev >= 64) { cudaGetLastError(); return false; }
+    if (ok[dev] == 0) {
+        int major = 0;
+        cudaFuncAttributes fa{};
+        const bool code = cudaDeviceGetAttribute(&major, cudaDevAttrComputeCapabilityMajor, dev) == cudaSuccess &&
+                          strata::cc_major_of(major) >= 9 &&
+                          cudaFuncGetAttributes(&fa, block_topk_cluster_kernel) == cudaSuccess && fa.ptxVersion >= 90 &&
+                          fa.binaryVersion >= 90;
+        cudaGetLastError();
+        ok[dev] = code ? 1 : 2;
+    }
+    if (ok[dev] != 1) return false;
+    if (smem > opt[dev]) {   // a larger capacity: opt in, and check that a cluster of CL_N such CTAs can be resident
+        int clusters = 0;
+        cudaLaunchConfig_t q{};
+        cudaLaunchAttribute qa[1];
+        qa[0].id = cudaLaunchAttributeClusterDimension;
+        qa[0].val.clusterDim.x = CL_N;
+        qa[0].val.clusterDim.y = 1;
+        qa[0].val.clusterDim.z = 1;
+        q.gridDim = dim3(CL_N, 1, 1);
+        q.blockDim = dim3(CL_T, 1, 1);
+        q.dynamicSmemBytes = smem;
+        q.attrs = qa;
+        q.numAttrs = 1;
+        if (cudaFuncSetAttribute(block_topk_cluster_kernel, cudaFuncAttributeMaxDynamicSharedMemorySize, (int) smem) !=
+                cudaSuccess ||
+            cudaOccupancyMaxActiveClusters(&clusters, block_topk_cluster_kernel, &q) != cudaSuccess || clusters < 1) {
+            cudaGetLastError();
+            return false;    // this capacity takes the one-CTA kernels; a smaller one may still fit
+        }
+        opt[dev] = smem;
+    }
+    cudaLaunchConfig_t cfg{};
+    cudaLaunchAttribute at[1];
+    at[0].id = cudaLaunchAttributeClusterDimension;
+    at[0].val.clusterDim.x = CL_N;
+    at[0].val.clusterDim.y = 1;
+    at[0].val.clusterDim.z = 1;
+    cfg.gridDim = dim3(CL_N, (unsigned) nq, 1);
+    cfg.blockDim = dim3(CL_T, 1, 1);
+    cfg.dynamicSmemBytes = smem;
+    cfg.stream = (cudaStream_t) stream;
+    cfg.attrs = at;
+    cfg.numAttrs = 1;
+    const cudaError_t e = cudaLaunchKernelEx(&cfg, block_topk_cluster_kernel, scores, steps, max_blocks, cap, ids);
+    if (e != cudaSuccess) { std::fprintf(stderr, "qsa_block_topk cluster: %s\n", cudaGetErrorString(e)); std::exit(1); }
+    return true;
+#endif
+}
+
 void qsa_block_topk(const float* scores, const int32_t* steps, int64_t nq, int64_t max_blocks, int64_t cap,
                     const QsaShapes& s, int32_t* ids, void* stream, int64_t active_blocks) {
     // keys in registers when every query's blocks fit (contexts up to ~135K cells); the same ids. STRATA_TOPK_OLD=1:
     // the kernel that reads them from memory on every pass
     static const bool old = std::getenv("STRATA_TOPK_OLD") != nullptr;
     if (nq <= 0) return;
+#if !defined(__HIPCC__)
+    // sm_90+: a cluster of CL_N CTAs per query for the calls of a few queries (decode windows); the same ids.
+    // STRATA_QSA_CLUSTER=0: the one-CTA kernels below
+    static const bool cluster = [] {
+        const char* v = std::getenv("STRATA_QSA_CLUSTER");
+        return !v || std::atoi(v) != 0;
+    }();
+    if (cluster && !old && nq <= CL_MAXQ && qsa_block_topk_cluster(scores, steps, nq, max_blocks, cap, s, ids, stream))
+        return;
+#endif
     // the blocks a query can have: the call's active count when the caller knows it (the prompt path), else the capacity.
     // Decode (no count) keeps the capacity rule and the original register width: nothing changes there.
 #if defined(__HIPCC__)

src/kernels/cuda/sampler.cu

@@ -10,7 +10,8 @@
 // produces a valid token, so only a comparison at the distribution level can tell them apart; the parity test
 // does that against an independently computed distribution.
 //
-// `sampler_greedy_kernel` is the plain argmax, one block per token over the vocabulary.  The sampled chain has
+// `sampler_greedy_kernel` is the plain argmax, one block per token over the vocabulary (on sm_90+ without penalties,
+// `sampler_greedy_cluster_kernel`: the same token from a cluster of 8 CTAs per row).  The sampled chain has
 // three implementations that pick the same token, bit for bit:
 //   - the SPLIT top_k (default): `sampler_split_part_kernel` cuts each row into 4,096-logit blocks over the whole
 //     GPU, each keeps its own top_k, and `sampler_split_merge_kernel` merges those lists and runs the tail;
@@ -20,6 +21,7 @@
 // The two new ones share `sampled_tail_warp` (top_p / min_p / temperature / draw on one warp).
 #include "strata/kernels/sampler.hpp"
 #include "strata/core/coupled_draft.hpp"
+#include "strata/core/emulate.hpp"
 
 #include <cuda_runtime.h>
 
@@ -166,6 +168,96 @@ __global__ void sampler_greedy_kernel(const float* __restrict__ logits, int n_vo
     }
 }
 
+#if !defined(__HIPCC__)
+/// **THE SAME ARGMAX ON A THREAD-BLOCK CLUSTER (sm_90+, S19), FOR THE CALLS WITHOUT PENALTIES.**  One block per
+/// token reads its 1 MB row (248,320 logits) on one SM with one load in flight per thread: latency-bound, 40 us per
+/// call on an RTX 5070, for every verify window and every draft step.  Here a cluster of `kAmCtas` CTAs shares the
+/// row, each thread keeps four loads in flight, and the CTAs' results meet in CTA 0's shared memory (distributed
+/// shared memory): 6 us (decode_cluster_parity --bench).
+///
+/// The answer is a function of the row alone, so it is the one-block kernel's bit for bit: the LOWEST index whose value
+/// is the largest non-NaN value above -inf (each thread walks its elements in ascending order with a strict `>`, and
+/// every merge takes the larger value or, on equality, the smaller index - an order-free rule), and 0 when there is
+/// none (all -inf / NaN), as there.  NaN never wins a `>`.
+///
+/// Barriers: a relaxed cluster arrive at entry, waited before the remote store (CTA 0 must be running); each CTA's
+/// result goes to slot `rank` of CTA 0, released by the next arrive; CTAs 1.. then exit (a cluster wait counts the
+/// threads that have not exited) and CTA 0 waits, reads its own slots, and writes the token.
+constexpr int kAmCtas = 8;      // CTAs per token (the portable cluster size)
+constexpr int kAmThreads = 1024;
+#if defined(__CUDA_ARCH__) && __CUDA_ARCH__ >= 900
+#define STRATA_AM_CLUSTER 1
+#else
+#define STRATA_AM_CLUSTER 0     // older targets: a trap, never launched (sample_greedy_cluster checks)
+#endif
+#if STRATA_AM_CLUSTER
+__device__ __forceinline__ void am_take(float s, int v, float& bv, int& best) {
+    if (s > bv) { bv = s; best = v; }
+}
+__device__ __forceinline__ void am_merge(float ov, int oi, float& bv, int& best) {
+    if (ov > bv || (ov == bv && oi < best)) { bv = ov; best = oi; }
+}
+#endif
+// grid (kAmCtas, n_tokens), cluster (kAmCtas, 1, 1), kAmThreads threads
+__global__ void __launch_bounds__(kAmThreads) sampler_greedy_cluster_kernel(const float* __restrict__ logits,
+                                                                            int n_vocab, int* __restrict__ out) {
+#if STRATA_AM_CLUSTER
+    __shared__ float sv[32];
+    __shared__ int si[32];
+    __shared__ float cv[kAmCtas];    // on CTA 0: each CTA's result
+    __shared__ int ci[kAmCtas];
+    unsigned rank;
+    asm volatile("mov.u32 %0, %%cluster_ctarank;\n" : "=r"(rank));
+    asm volatile("barrier.cluster.arrive.relaxed.aligned;\n" ::: "memory");
+    const float* l = logits + (size_t) blockIdx.y * n_vocab;
+    float bv = __int_as_float(0xff800000);   // -inf; `n_vocab` is "no candidate", as in sampler_greedy_kernel
+    int best = n_vocab;
+    constexpr int S = kAmCtas * kAmThreads;
+    int v = (int) rank * kAmThreads + (int) threadIdx.x;
+    for (; v + 3 * S < n_vocab; v += 4 * S) {   // four independent loads, then taken in ascending order
+        const float x0 = l[v], x1 = l[v + S], x2 = l[v + 2 * S], x3 = l[v + 3 * S];
+        am_take(x0, v, bv, best);
+        am_take(x1, v + S, bv, best);
+        am_take(x2, v + 2 * S, bv, best);
+        am_take(x3, v + 3 * S, bv, best);
+    }
+    for (; v < n_vocab; v += S) am_take(l[v], v, bv, best);
+    for (int off = 16; off > 0; off >>= 1)
+        am_merge(__shfl_down_sync(0xFFFFFFFFu, bv, off), __shfl_down_sync(0xFFFFFFFFu, best, off), bv, best);
+    const int warp = (int) (threadIdx.x >> 5), lane = (int) (threadIdx.x & 31);
+    if (lane == 0) { sv[warp] = bv; si[warp] = best; }
+    __syncthreads();
+    if (warp == 0) {
+        bv = sv[lane];
+        best = si[lane];
+        for (int off = 16; off > 0; off >>= 1)
+            am_merge(__shfl_down_sync(0xFFFFFFFFu, bv, off), __shfl_down_sync(0xFFFFFFFFu, best, off), bv, best);
+    }
+    asm volatile("barrier.cluster.wait.acquire.aligned;\n" ::: "memory");   // CTA 0 runs
+    if (threadIdx.x == 0) {
+        uint64_t a;
+        asm volatile("mapa.u64 %0, %1, %2;\n" : "=l"(a) : "l"((uint64_t) &cv[rank]), "r"(0u));
+        *reinterpret_cast<float*>(a) = bv;
+        asm volatile("mapa.u64 %0, %1, %2;\n" : "=l"(a) : "l"((uint64_t) &ci[rank]), "r"(0u));
+        *reinterpret_cast<int*>(a) = best;
+    }
+    asm volatile("barrier.cluster.arrive.release.aligned;\n" ::: "memory");
+    if (rank != 0) return;
+    asm volatile("barrier.cluster.wait.acquire.aligned;\n" ::: "memory");
+    if (warp == 0) {
+        bv = lane < kAmCtas ? cv[lane] : __int_as_float(0xff800000);
+        best = lane < kAmCtas ? ci[lane] : n_vocab;
+        for (int off = 16; off > 0; off >>= 1)
+            am_merge(__shfl_down_sync(0xFFFFFFFFu, bv, off), __shfl_down_sync(0xFFFFFFFFu, best, off), bv, best);
+        if (lane == 0) out[blockIdx.y] = (best < n_vocab) ? best : 0;
+    }
+#else
+    (void) logits; (void) n_vocab; (void) out;
+    __trap();
+#endif
+}
+#endif  // !__HIPCC__
+
 /// **THE SAMPLED PATH, ONE BLOCK PER TOKEN.**  The kernel below replaced a version that ran the whole chain
 /// in ONE THREAD per token (`<<<ceil(T/64), 64>>>`, so a 4-token window fielded four threads): `top_k` alone
 /// was `k` sequential scans of the vocabulary with an inner sweep over the already-taken list - 20 x 248,320
@@ -833,6 +925,55 @@ int2* split_scratch(void* stream, size_t entries) {
 
 }  // namespace
 
+bool sample_greedy_cluster(const float* logits, int n_tokens, int n_vocab, int* out, void* stream) {
+#if defined(__HIPCC__)
+    (void) logits; (void) n_tokens; (void) n_vocab; (void) out; (void) stream;
+    return false;
+#else
+    if (n_tokens <= 0 || n_vocab <= 0) return true;
+    if (n_tokens > 65535) return false;
+    // Per device (a layer split runs on several): 1 the cluster kernel runs here, 2 it does not - sm_90+ (the card's,
+    // or STRATA_EMULATE_CC's), code built for it (an older build's PTX holds a trap: the PTX version says which), and
+    // room for one cluster of kAmCtas CTAs.
+    static int ok[64] = {};
+    int dev = 0;
+    if (cudaGetDevice(&dev) != cudaSuccess || dev < 0 || dev >= 64) { cudaGetLastError(); return false; }
+    cudaLaunchConfig_t cfg{};
+    cudaLaunchAttribute at[1];
+    at[0].id = cudaLaunchAttributeClusterDimension;
+    at[0].val.clusterDim.x = kAmCtas;
+    at[0].val.clusterDim.y = 1;
+    at[0].val.clusterDim.z = 1;
+    cfg.gridDim = dim3(kAmCtas, 1, 1);
+    cfg.blockDim = dim3(kAmThreads, 1, 1);
+    cfg.dynamicSmemBytes = 0;
+    cfg.stream = (cudaStream_t) stream;
+    cfg.attrs = at;
+    cfg.numAttrs = 1;
+    if (ok[dev] == 0) {
+        int major = 0, clusters = 0;
+        cudaFuncAttributes fa{};
+        const bool runs = cudaDeviceGetAttribute(&major, cudaDevAttrComputeCapabilityMajor, dev) == cudaSuccess &&
+                          strata::cc_major_of(major) >= 9 &&
+                          cudaFuncGetAttributes(&fa, sampler_greedy_cluster_kernel) == cudaSuccess &&
+                          fa.ptxVersion >= 90 && fa.binaryVersion >= 90 &&
+                          cudaOccupancyMaxActiveClusters(&clusters, sampler_greedy_cluster_kernel, &cfg) ==
+                              cudaSuccess &&
+                          clusters >= 1;
+        cudaGetLastError();
+        ok[dev] = runs ? 1 : 2;
+    }
+    if (ok[dev] != 1) return false;
+    cfg.gridDim = dim3(kAmCtas, (unsigned) n_tokens, 1);
+    const cudaError_t e = cudaLaunchKernelEx(&cfg, sampler_greedy_cluster_kernel, logits, n_vocab, out);
+    if (e != cudaSuccess) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "sample_tokens cluster launch: %s\n", cudaGetErrorString(e));
+        std::exit(1);
+    }
+    return true;
+#endif
+}
+
 void sample_tokens(const float* logits, int n_tokens, int n_vocab, const int* history, int history_len,
                    const SamplerParams& p, int* out, void* stream) {
     if (n_tokens <= 0 || n_vocab <= 0) return;
@@ -845,10 +986,17 @@ void sample_tokens(const float* logits, int n_tokens, int n_vocab, const int* hi
                                ? (unsigned) ((n_vocab + 31) / 32) * sizeof(unsigned)   // the penalty bitmap
                                : 0;
     if (p.greedy || p.temperature <= 0.0f) {
+        // Without penalties (shmem == 0: no window) on sm_90+, a cluster of CTAs per token - the same token; see
+        // `sampler_greedy_cluster_kernel`.  STRATA_ARGMAX_MULTI=0: always the one-block kernel.
+        static const bool multi = [] {
+            const char* v = std::getenv("STRATA_ARGMAX_MULTI");
+            return !v || std::atoi(v) != 0;
+        }();
         // One block per token, 1,024 threads over the vocabulary.  See `sampler_greedy_kernel`.
         const int gthreads = 1024;
-        sampler_greedy_kernel<<<(unsigned) n_tokens, gthreads, shmem, (cudaStream_t) stream>>>(
-            logits, n_vocab, history, history_len, p, p.penalty_last_n, p.penalty_last_n, out);
+        if (!(multi && shmem == 0 && sample_greedy_cluster(logits, n_tokens, n_vocab, out, stream)))
+            sampler_greedy_kernel<<<(unsigned) n_tokens, gthreads, shmem, (cudaStream_t) stream>>>(
+                logits, n_vocab, history, history_len, p, p.penalty_last_n, p.penalty_last_n, out);
     } else if (sampled_path() == SampledPath::Old) {
         // The same block-per-token shape: the selection's k argmax rounds reduce inside the block.  See
         // `sampler_kernel`'s header for what the old one-thread-per-token launch cost.

src/kernels/decode_cluster_parity.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,421 @@
+// src/kernels/decode_cluster_parity.cpp - S19: the decode kernels on thread-block clusters (sm_90+) against the ones
+// they replace, bit for bit (GPU, synthetic, no model).
+//
+//   QSA top-k : qsa_block_topk_cluster vs qsa_block_topk's one-CTA dispatch (the register kernel up to 33,792 blocks,
+//               block_topk_kernel above) and vs qsa_block_topk_ref - every id of every row of the `cap`-wide buffer,
+//               including the entries past the width that neither may write.
+//   argmax    : sample_greedy_cluster vs sample_tokens' one-block greedy kernel.
+//
+// Inputs: random scores like a real indexer's, and adversarial ones - all equal, a few distinct values (ties at the
+// threshold across the CTAs of a cluster), NaN, +-inf, -0.0 against +0.0, denormals, monotone rows, all NaN; contexts
+// from below the selection width (the identity) to 262,144 cells, every tail weight (n_kv mod 4), 1-16 queries; and
+// one CUDA graph that captures both cluster launches, replayed with new inputs.
+//
+//   decode_cluster_parity --selftest     parity (exit 0 = identical everywhere); skipped (exit 0) below sm_90
+//   decode_cluster_parity --bench        per-call times, old vs new, at 32K / 128K / 262K
+//
+// The old paths are reached through the public dispatchers with STRATA_QSA_CLUSTER=0 / STRATA_ARGMAX_MULTI=0, set
+// here before their first call (they read the variables once).
+#include "strata/kernels/qsa.hpp"
+#include "strata/kernels/qsa_select.hpp"
+#include "strata/kernels/sampler.hpp"
+
+#include <cuda_runtime.h>
+
+#include <cmath>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <cstdio>
+#include <cstdlib>
+#include <cstring>
+#include <limits>
+#include <random>
+#include <string>
+#include <vector>
+
+namespace k = strata::kernels;
+
+namespace {
+
+void ck(cudaError_t e, const char* what) {
+    if (e != cudaSuccess) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "%s: %s\n", what, cudaGetErrorString(e));
+        std::exit(2);
+    }
+}
+
+void set_env(const char* name, const char* value) {
+#if defined(_WIN32)
+    _putenv_s(name, value);
+#else
+    setenv(name, value, 1);
+#endif
+}
+
+template <typename T> struct Dev {
+    T* p = nullptr;
+    size_t n = 0;
+    explicit Dev(size_t count) : n(count) { ck(cudaMalloc(&p, count * sizeof(T) + 64), "cudaMalloc"); }
+    ~Dev() { cudaFree(p); }
+    void put(const std::vector<T>& h) {
+        ck(cudaMemcpy(p, h.data(), h.size() * sizeof(T), cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "up");
+    }
+    std::vector<T> get() const {
+        std::vector<T> h(n);
+        ck(cudaMemcpy(h.data(), p, n * sizeof(T), cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost), "down");
+        return h;
+    }
+};
+
+const float kNaN = std::numeric_limits<float>::quiet_NaN(), kInf = std::numeric_limits<float>::infinity();
+
+// ---- QSA top-k fixtures
+enum Pattern { kRandom, kAllEqual, kFewValues, kNaNs, kInfs, kSignedZero, kDenormal, kAscending, kDescending, kAllNaN,
+               kQuantized, kPatterns };
+const char* pattern_name(int p) {
+    static const char* n[] = {"random", "all-equal", "few-values", "nan", "inf", "signed-zero", "denormal", "ascending",
+                              "descending", "all-nan", "quantized"};
+    return n[p];
+}
+
+// one query's row of block scores (blocks 0..n_bid); the tail block gets the +1e9 the score kernel gives it
+void fill_row(float* row, int64_t n_kv, int64_t n_bid, int pattern, std::mt19937& rng) {
+    std::normal_distribution<float> nd(0.f, 1.f);
+    std::uniform_int_distribution<int> pick(0, 99);
+    for (int64_t b = 0; b <= n_bid; ++b) {
+        float v = 0.f;
+        const float g = nd(rng);
+        switch (pattern) {
+            case kRandom: v = std::fmax(0.f, g) * 3.f + std::fmax(0.f, nd(rng)); break;   // relu sums: exact zeros too
+            case kAllEqual: v = 1.f; break;
+            case kFewValues: v = (float) (pick(rng) % 4) * 0.5f; break;
+            case kNaNs: v = pick(rng) < 15 ? kNaN : std::fabs(g); break;
+            case kInfs: {
+                const int r = pick(rng);
+                v = r < 5 ? kInf : r < 15 ? -kInf : r < 30 ? -std::fabs(g) : g;
+                break;
+            }
+            case kSignedZero: v = pick(rng) < 50 ? -0.0f : (pick(rng) < 50 ? 0.0f : -std::fabs(g) * 1e-3f); break;
+            case kDenormal: v = (float) (pick(rng) % 7) * 1e-41f; break;
+            case kAscending: v = (float) b; break;
+            case kDescending: v = (float) (n_bid - b); break;
+            case kAllNaN: v = kNaN; break;
+            case kQuantized: v = std::round(std::fabs(g) * 8.f) / 8.f; break;
+        }
+        row[b] = v;
+    }
+    if (n_kv % 4 != 0 && pattern != kAllNaN && pattern != kAllEqual) row[n_bid] += 1e9f;
+}
+
+struct TopkCase {
+    int64_t ctx;         // the last query's n_kv
+    int64_t capacity;    // --max-context: max_blocks = capacity / 4 + 2 (the engine's rule)
+    int nq;
+    int pattern;
+};
+
+int run_topk_case(const TopkCase& c, std::mt19937& rng, bool verbose) {
+    const k::QsaShapes s = k::qsa_real_shapes();
+    const int64_t max_blocks = c.capacity / 4 + 2, cap = k::qsa_selection_width(k::kTopkMaxCells, s);
+    std::vector<float> sc((size_t) (c.nq * max_blocks), 0.f);
+    std::vector<int32_t> steps((size_t) c.nq * k::kStepCount);
+    for (int i = 0; i < c.nq; ++i) {
+        const int64_t n_kv = c.ctx - (c.nq - 1 - i);   // the window's queries, one cell apart, the last at ctx
+        int32_t* st = steps.data() + (size_t) i * k::kStepCount;
+        st[k::kStepPos] = (int32_t) (n_kv - 1);
+        st[k::kStepNKv] = (int32_t) n_kv;
+        st[k::kStepNBid] = (int32_t) (n_kv / s.idx_block);
+        st[k::kStepWidth] = (int32_t) k::qsa_selection_width(n_kv, s);
+        fill_row(sc.data() + (size_t) i * max_blocks, n_kv, n_kv / s.idx_block, c.pattern, rng);
+    }
+    Dev<float> d_sc(sc.size());
+    const size_t n_ids = (size_t) (c.nq * cap);
+    Dev<int32_t> d_st(steps.size()), d_new(n_ids), d_old(n_ids), d_ref(n_ids);
+    d_sc.put(sc);
+    d_st.put(steps);
+    ck(cudaMemset(d_new.p, 0xA5, d_new.n * 4), "memset");
+    ck(cudaMemset(d_old.p, 0xA5, d_old.n * 4), "memset");
+    ck(cudaMemset(d_ref.p, 0xA5, d_ref.n * 4), "memset");
+    if (!k::qsa_block_topk_cluster(d_sc.p, d_st.p, c.nq, max_blocks, cap, s, d_new.p, nullptr)) {
+        std::printf("FAIL topk ctx %lld cap %lld nq %d: the cluster kernel did not run\n", (long long) c.ctx,
+                    (long long) c.capacity, c.nq);
+        return 1;
+    }
+    k::qsa_block_topk(d_sc.p, d_st.p, c.nq, max_blocks, cap, s, d_old.p, nullptr);
+    k::qsa_block_topk_ref(d_sc.p, d_st.p, c.nq, max_blocks, cap, s, d_ref.p, nullptr);
+    ck(cudaDeviceSynchronize(), "topk sync");
+    const std::vector<int32_t> a = d_new.get(), b = d_old.get(), r = d_ref.get();
+    int64_t diff_old = 0, diff_ref = 0, first = -1;
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < a.size(); ++i) {
+        if (a[i] != b[i]) { ++diff_old; if (first < 0) first = (int64_t) i; }
+        if (a[i] != r[i]) ++diff_ref;
+    }
+    const bool ok = diff_old == 0 && diff_ref == 0;
+    if (!ok || verbose)
+        std::printf("%s topk ctx %7lld cap %7lld nq %2d %-11s: %lld ids differ from the one-CTA dispatch, %lld from "
+                    "the reference%s\n", ok ? "ok  " : "FAIL", (long long) c.ctx, (long long) c.capacity, c.nq,
+                    pattern_name(c.pattern), (long long) diff_old, (long long) diff_ref,
+                    first >= 0 ? (" (first at " + std::to_string(first) + ")").c_str() : "");
+    return ok ? 0 : 1;
+}
+
+// ---- argmax fixtures
+enum AmPattern { aRandom, aTies, aAllEqual, aAllNegInf, aAllNaN, aNaNMax, aPosInf, aSignedZero, aLast, aFirst,
+                 aDenormal, aTiesAcross, aPatterns };
+const char* am_name(int p) {
+    static const char* n[] = {"random", "ties", "all-equal", "all--inf", "all-nan", "nan+max", "+inf", "signed-zero",
+                              "max-last", "max-first", "denormal", "ties-across"};
+    return n[p];
+}
+
+void fill_logits(float* l, int nv, int pattern, std::mt19937& rng) {
+    std::normal_distribution<float> nd(0.f, 3.f);
+    std::uniform_int_distribution<int> at(0, nv - 1);
+    for (int v = 0; v < nv; ++v) l[v] = nd(rng);
+    switch (pattern) {
+        case aRandom: break;
+        case aTies: { const int n = 1 + at(rng) % 9; for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) l[at(rng)] = 100.f; break; }
+        case aAllEqual: for (int v = 0; v < nv; ++v) l[v] = 0.25f; break;
+        case aAllNegInf: for (int v = 0; v < nv; ++v) l[v] = -kInf; break;
+        case aAllNaN: for (int v = 0; v < nv; ++v) l[v] = kNaN; break;
+        case aNaNMax:
+            for (int v = 0; v < nv; ++v) if (at(rng) % 3 == 0) l[v] = kNaN;
+            l[at(rng)] = 50.f;
+            l[at(rng)] = 50.f;
+            break;
+        case aPosInf: for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) l[at(rng)] = kInf; break;
+        case aSignedZero:
+            for (int v = 0; v < nv; ++v) l[v] = -std::fabs(l[v]) - 1.f;
+            for (int i = 0; i < 6; ++i) l[at(rng)] = (i & 1) ? 0.0f : -0.0f;
+            break;
+        case aLast: l[nv - 1] = 1e30f; break;
+        case aFirst: l[0] = 1e30f; if (nv > 1) l[nv - 1] = 1e30f; break;
+        case aDenormal: for (int v = 0; v < nv; ++v) l[v] = (float) (at(rng) % 5) * 1e-42f - 1e-30f * (v & 1); break;
+        case aTiesAcross:   // the same maximum in several CTAs' and threads' ranges (8 x 1024 stride), plus -inf, NaN
+            for (int v = 0; v < nv; v += 1 + at(rng) % 9000) l[v] = 7.f;
+            for (int v = 3; v < nv; v += 11) l[v] = kNaN;
+            for (int v = 5; v < nv; v += 13) l[v] = -kInf;
+            break;
+    }
+}
+
+int run_argmax_case(int nv, int T, int pattern, std::mt19937& rng, bool verbose) {
+    std::vector<float> l((size_t) nv * T);
+    for (int t = 0; t < T; ++t) fill_logits(l.data() + (size_t) t * nv, nv, t % 2 == 0 ? pattern : aRandom, rng);
+    Dev<float> d_l(l.size());
+    Dev<int> d_new((size_t) T), d_old((size_t) T);
+    d_l.put(l);
+    ck(cudaMemset(d_new.p, 0xA5, (size_t) T * 4), "memset");
+    ck(cudaMemset(d_old.p, 0x5A, (size_t) T * 4), "memset");
+    k::SamplerParams sp;
+    sp.greedy = true;
+    sp.temperature = 0.f;
+    if (!k::sample_greedy_cluster(d_l.p, T, nv, d_new.p, nullptr)) {
+        std::printf("FAIL argmax nv %d T %d: the cluster kernel did not run\n", nv, T);
+        return 1;
+    }
+    k::sample_tokens(d_l.p, T, nv, nullptr, 0, sp, d_old.p, nullptr);
+    ck(cudaDeviceSynchronize(), "argmax sync");
+    const std::vector<int> a = d_new.get(), b = d_old.get();
+    // and an independent host answer: the lowest index of the largest non-NaN value above -inf, else 0
+    int bad = 0;
+    for (int t = 0; t < T; ++t) {
+        const float* r = l.data() + (size_t) t * nv;
+        int hb = -1;
+        for (int v = 0; v < nv; ++v)
+            if (r[v] > -kInf && (hb < 0 || r[v] > r[hb])) hb = v;
+        if (hb < 0) hb = 0;
+        if (a[(size_t) t] != b[(size_t) t] || a[(size_t) t] != hb) ++bad;
+    }
+    if (bad || verbose)
+        std::printf("%s argmax nv %6d T %d %-11s: %d rows differ (new %d, old %d)\n", bad ? "FAIL" : "ok  ", nv, T,
+                    am_name(pattern), bad, a[0], b[0]);
+    return bad ? 1 : 0;
+}
+
+// both cluster launches captured in one graph, replayed over new inputs written into the same buffers
+int run_graph_case(std::mt19937& rng) {
+    const k::QsaShapes s = k::qsa_real_shapes();
+    const int nq = 5, nv = 248320;
+    const int64_t capacity = 131072 + 272, max_blocks = capacity / 4 + 2;
+    const int64_t cap = k::qsa_selection_width(k::kTopkMaxCells, s);
+    Dev<float> d_sc((size_t) (nq * max_blocks)), d_l((size_t) nv * nq);
+    Dev<int32_t> d_st((size_t) nq * k::kStepCount), d_new((size_t) (nq * cap)), d_old((size_t) (nq * cap));
+    Dev<int> a_new((size_t) nq), a_old((size_t) nq);
+    ck(cudaMemset(d_new.p, 0, d_new.n * 4), "memset");   // the entries past a row's width: written by neither
+    ck(cudaMemset(d_old.p, 0, d_old.n * 4), "memset");
+    cudaStream_t cs;
+    ck(cudaStreamCreateWithFlags(&cs, cudaStreamNonBlocking), "stream");
+    cudaGraph_t g = nullptr;
+    cudaGraphExec_t ge = nullptr;
+    ck(cudaStreamBeginCapture(cs, cudaStreamCaptureModeThreadLocal), "begin capture");
+    const bool l1 = k::qsa_block_topk_cluster(d_sc.p, d_st.p, nq, max_blocks, cap, s, d_new.p, cs);
+    const bool l2 = k::sample_greedy_cluster(d_l.p, nq, nv, a_new.p, cs);
+    ck(cudaStreamEndCapture(cs, &g), "end capture");
+    if (!l1 && !l2) {   // no cluster code here (a card or a build below sm_90): nothing to compare
+        if (g) cudaGraphDestroy(g);
+        cudaStreamDestroy(cs);
+        return -1;
+    }
+    if (!l1 || !l2) { std::printf("FAIL graph: one cluster kernel did not run\n"); return 1; }
+    ck(cudaGraphInstantiate(&ge, g, 0), "instantiate");
+    int fails = 0;
+    for (int rep = 0; rep < 6; ++rep) {
+        const int64_t ctx = 100000 + rep * 4001 + rep % 4;
+        std::vector<float> sc((size_t) (nq * max_blocks), 0.f), l((size_t) nv * nq);
+        std::vector<int32_t> steps((size_t) nq * k::kStepCount);
+        for (int i = 0; i < nq; ++i) {
+            const int64_t n_kv = ctx - (nq - 1 - i);
+            int32_t* st = steps.data() + (size_t) i * k::kStepCount;
+            st[k::kStepPos] = (int32_t) (n_kv - 1);
+            st[k::kStepNKv] = (int32_t) n_kv;
+            st[k::kStepNBid] = (int32_t) (n_kv / 4);
+            st[k::kStepWidth] = (int32_t) k::qsa_selection_width(n_kv, s);
+            fill_row(sc.data() + (size_t) i * max_blocks, n_kv, n_kv / 4, rep % 2 ? kFewValues : kRandom, rng);
+            fill_logits(l.data() + (size_t) i * nv, nv, rep % 2 ? aTiesAcross : aRandom, rng);
+        }
+        d_sc.put(sc);
+        d_st.put(steps);
+        d_l.put(l);
+        ck(cudaGraphLaunch(ge, cs), "graph launch");
+        k::qsa_block_topk(d_sc.p, d_st.p, nq, max_blocks, cap, s, d_old.p, cs);
+        k::SamplerParams sp;
+        sp.greedy = true;
+        k::sample_tokens(d_l.p, nq, nv, nullptr, 0, sp, a_old.p, cs);
+        ck(cudaStreamSynchronize(cs), "graph sync");
+        const auto x = d_new.get(), y = d_old.get();
+        const auto u = a_new.get(), v = a_old.get();
+        int64_t d1 = 0, d2 = 0;
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < x.size(); ++i) d1 += x[i] != y[i];
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < u.size(); ++i) d2 += u[i] != v[i];
+        if (d1 || d2) ++fails;
+        std::printf("%s graph replay %d (ctx %lld): %lld ids, %lld tokens differ\n", d1 || d2 ? "FAIL" : "ok  ", rep,
+                    (long long) ctx, (long long) d1, (long long) d2);
+    }
+    cudaGraphExecDestroy(ge);
+    cudaGraphDestroy(g);
+    cudaStreamDestroy(cs);
+    return fails;
+}
+
+// back-to-back launches on `cs` (the engine's are too: one stream, inside a graph)
+template <typename F> float time_us(cudaStream_t cs, F&& f, int reps = 300) {
+    cudaEvent_t a, b;
+    cudaEventCreate(&a);
+    cudaEventCreate(&b);
+    for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) f();
+    cudaEventRecord(a, cs);
+    for (int i = 0; i < reps; ++i) f();
+    cudaEventRecord(b, cs);
+    ck(cudaEventSynchronize(b), "time");
+    float ms = 0.f;
+    cudaEventElapsedTime(&ms, a, b);
+    cudaEventDestroy(a);
+    cudaEventDestroy(b);
+    return ms * 1000.f / (float) reps;
+}
+
+int bench() {
+    std::mt19937 rng(11);
+    const k::QsaShapes s = k::qsa_real_shapes();
+    const int64_t cap = k::qsa_selection_width(k::kTopkMaxCells, s);
+    cudaStream_t cs;
+    ck(cudaStreamCreateWithFlags(&cs, cudaStreamNonBlocking), "stream");
+    std::printf("QSA top-k, per call (us); capacity = context + 272 as the speed runs set --max-context\n");
+    for (const int64_t ctx : {32768LL, 131072LL, 262144LL - 272}) {
+        for (const int nq : {1, 5}) {
+            const int64_t capacity = ctx + 272, max_blocks = capacity / 4 + 2;
+            std::vector<float> sc((size_t) (nq * max_blocks), 0.f);
+            std::vector<int32_t> steps((size_t) nq * k::kStepCount);
+            for (int i = 0; i < nq; ++i) {
+                const int64_t n_kv = ctx - (nq - 1 - i);
+                int32_t* st = steps.data() + (size_t) i * k::kStepCount;
+                st[k::kStepPos] = (int32_t) (n_kv - 1);
+                st[k::kStepNKv] = (int32_t) n_kv;
+                st[k::kStepNBid] = (int32_t) (n_kv / 4);
+                st[k::kStepWidth] = (int32_t) k::qsa_selection_width(n_kv, s);
+                fill_row(sc.data() + (size_t) i * max_blocks, n_kv, n_kv / 4, kRandom, rng);
+            }
+            Dev<float> d_sc(sc.size());
+            Dev<int32_t> d_st(steps.size()), d_ids((size_t) (nq * cap));
+            d_sc.put(sc);
+            d_st.put(steps);
+            const float* sp = d_sc.p;
+            const int32_t* st = d_st.p;
+            int32_t* ids = d_ids.p;
+            const float t_old = time_us(cs, [&] { k::qsa_block_topk(sp, st, nq, max_blocks, cap, s, ids, cs); });
+            const float t_ref = time_us(cs, [&] { k::qsa_block_topk_ref(sp, st, nq, max_blocks, cap, s, ids, cs); });
+            const float t_new = time_us(cs, [&] { k::qsa_block_topk_cluster(sp, st, nq, max_blocks, cap, s, ids, cs); });
+            std::printf("  ctx %6lld nq %d: one-CTA dispatch %7.1f  (ref %7.1f)  cluster %6.1f  -> %.1fx\n",
+                        (long long) ctx, nq, t_old, t_ref, t_new, t_old / t_new);
+        }
+    }
+    std::printf("argmax, per call (us)\n");
+    for (const int nv : {248320, 32768}) {
+        for (const int T : {1, 5}) {
+            std::vector<float> l((size_t) nv * T);
+            for (int t = 0; t < T; ++t) fill_logits(l.data() + (size_t) t * nv, nv, aRandom, rng);
+            Dev<float> d_l(l.size());
+            Dev<int> d_o((size_t) T);
+            d_l.put(l);
+            k::SamplerParams sp;
+            sp.greedy = true;
+            const float t_old = time_us(cs, [&] { k::sample_tokens(d_l.p, T, nv, nullptr, 0, sp, d_o.p, cs); });
+            const float t_new = time_us(cs, [&] { k::sample_greedy_cluster(d_l.p, T, nv, d_o.p, cs); });
+            std::printf("  n_vocab %6d T %d: one block %6.1f  cluster %5.1f  -> %.1fx\n", nv, T, t_old, t_new,
+                        t_old / t_new);
+        }
+    }
+    cudaStreamDestroy(cs);
+    return 0;
+}
+
+}  // namespace
+
+int main(int argc, char** argv) {
+    set_env("STRATA_QSA_CLUSTER", "0");     // the dispatchers: the one-CTA kernels (the cluster ones called directly)
+    set_env("STRATA_ARGMAX_MULTI", "0");
+    const bool do_bench = argc > 1 && std::strcmp(argv[1], "--bench") == 0;
+    const bool verbose = argc > 2 && std::strcmp(argv[2], "-v") == 0;
+    int dev = 0, major = 0;
+    ck(cudaGetDevice(&dev), "device");
+    ck(cudaDeviceGetAttribute(&major, cudaDevAttrComputeCapabilityMajor, dev), "cc");
+    std::mt19937 rng(20261002);
+    // first, so that both kernels' first calls (their per-device checks and opt-ins) happen inside a stream capture,
+    // as in the engine's decode graphs
+    const int gfails = run_graph_case(rng);
+    if (gfails < 0) {
+        std::printf("SKIP: no thread-block clusters on this card / build (compute capability %d)\n", major);
+        return 0;
+    }
+    if (do_bench) return bench();
+    int fails = 0, cases = 0;
+    // contexts: below the width (identity), at it, just past it, odd tails, the register kernel's range, past it
+    // (block_topk_kernel), up to 262,144; capacities: tight (the speed runs) and 262,144 (a long --max-context)
+    const int64_t ctxs[] = {7, 2050, 2051, 2052, 2053, 2054, 2055, 3001, 9000, 32768, 32769, 65538, 100003,
+                            131072, 135170, 135171, 200001, 262142, 262143, 262144};
+    for (const int64_t ctx : ctxs) {
+        for (const int64_t capacity : {ctx + 272, (int64_t) 262144 + 272}) {
+            if (capacity < ctx) continue;
+            for (int p = 0; p < kPatterns; ++p) {
+                const int nq = (p % 3 == 0) ? 1 : (p % 3 == 1 ? 5 : 16);
+                if (nq > ctx) continue;
+                fails += run_topk_case({ctx, capacity, nq, p}, rng, verbose);
+                ++cases;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    std::printf("QSA top-k: %d cases, %d failed\n", cases, fails);
+    int afails = 0, acases = 0;
+    for (const int nv : {248320, 248321, 248319, 32771, 24576, 8193, 1000, 33, 1}) {
+        for (int p = 0; p < aPatterns; ++p) {
+            for (const int T : {1, 5}) {
+                afails += run_argmax_case(nv, T, p, rng, verbose);
+                ++acases;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    std::printf("argmax: %d cases, %d failed\n", acases, afails);
+    const int total = fails + afails + gfails;
+    std::printf("%s\n", total == 0 ? "PASS: the cluster kernels are bitwise identical" : "FAIL");
+    return total == 0 ? 0 : 1;
+}

src/prefill/moe_fused.cu

@@ -0,0 +1,459 @@
+// src/prefill/moe_fused.cu - see include/strata/prefill/moe_fused.hpp (#136: the Q2_0 pack's prompt experts on
+// Strata's own int8 tensor-core kernels, with the grouping on the GPU).
+//
+// The arithmetic.  A Q2_0 block is 64 weights w = d_w * (q - 1), q in 0..3, four codes per byte, weight j of a block
+// in byte j / 4 at bits 2 * (j % 4).  An activation block of 32 values is x = d_x * a with a = round(x / d_x) in
+// -127..127.  Over one 32-value half-block
+//     sum w x = d_w * d_x * (sum q a - sum a),
+// so the int8 product takes the codes as they are (0..3 is a valid s8) and the offset is the activations' own sum,
+// stored with the block.  The dot product (|sum q a| <= 32 * 3 * 127 < 2^22) becomes a float exactly with one
+// integer add: as_float(0x4B400000 + dot) = 1.5 * 2^23 + dot, and the block stores c = -(1.5 * 2^23 + sum a), so
+// as_float(0x4B400000 + dot) + c = dot - sum a with no rounding.  Per output and 64-block that is
+//     acc += d_w * (d_x0 * t0 + d_x1 * t1)        (t = dot - sum a of each half)
+// - two integer adds, two float adds and three multiply-adds.
+//
+// The K order.  mma.sync m16n8k32 takes four consecutive k of a row (A) or column (B) per register.  Four consecutive
+// weights are one code byte; four codes of one register instead come from the same 2-bit field of four consecutive
+// bytes - (word >> 2t) & 0x03030303 holds weights t, t+4, t+8, t+12 of a 16-weight word.  So the kernels use that order
+// for the k of a half-block: mma k index 16h + 4t + j stands for weight (and activation) 16h + t + 4j.  The
+// activations are stored in it (perm32), and a lane's two B registers (h = 0 and 1) are adjacent: one 8-byte load.
+#include "strata/prefill/moe_fused.hpp"
+
+#include <cuda_fp16.h>
+#include <cuda_runtime.h>
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <cstdio>
+#include <cstdlib>
+#include <mutex>
+
+namespace strata::prefill::fused {
+namespace {
+
+void ck(cudaError_t e, const char* what) {
+    if (e != cudaSuccess) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "prefill fused experts: %s: %s\n", what, cudaGetErrorString(e));
+        std::exit(1);
+    }
+}
+
+constexpr int AB = 80;                  // activation bytes per 64 values: 64 codes, then {d0, c0, d1, c1}
+constexpr int MAGIC = 0x4B400000;       // the bits of 1.5 * 2^23
+constexpr float MAGICF = 12582912.0f;
+// The Strata Q2_0 blob (moe_mmq.cu strata_q2_kernel, kernels.cu blob_dequant_kernel): gate/up codes [1280][640 B]
+// (rows interleaved: gate of feature f at row 2f, its up at 2f + 1), down codes [2560][160 B], gate/up scales
+// [1280][40] fp16, down scales [2560][10] fp16.
+constexpr size_t O_GU_CODES = 0, O_D_CODES = (size_t) 1280 * 640, O_GU_SC = O_D_CODES + (size_t) 2560 * 160,
+                 O_D_SC = O_GU_SC + (size_t) 1280 * 40 * 2;
+constexpr int THREADS = 512;            // 16 warps: 4 along the weight rows (64 each) x 4 along the tile rows (16 each)
+constexpr int WROWS = 256;              // weight rows per work item: 128 features of gate/up, or 256 outputs of down
+constexpr int STAGES = 4;               // cp.async pipeline depth, one 64-weight block of K per stage
+constexpr int STAGE_BYTES = WROWS * 16 + kTileRows * AB;
+constexpr size_t smem_bytes(bool gu) {
+    return (size_t) WROWS * (gu ? 40 : 10) * 2 + STAGES * STAGE_BYTES + kTileRows * 4;
+}
+
+// the stored position of value k of a 32-value half-block (see "The K order")
+__host__ __device__ __forceinline__ int perm32(int k) { return 8 * (k & 3) + 4 * (k >> 4) + ((k & 15) >> 2); }
+
+struct Tables {
+    int32_t *cnt, *off, *fill, *ts;      // per expert: rows, first row (E + 1), placement cursor, first tile (E + 1)
+    int2* tiles;                         // {expert, first row}, in expert order
+};
+size_t tiles_at(int n_expert) { return ((size_t) (4 * n_expert + 2) * 4 + 15) / 16 * 16; }
+Tables tables(void* scratch, int n_expert) {
+    int32_t* p = (int32_t*) scratch;
+    return {p, p + n_expert, p + 2 * n_expert + 1, p + 3 * n_expert + 1,
+            (int2*) ((uint8_t*) scratch + tiles_at(n_expert))};
+}
+
+// ---- activations: one warp per 64 values
+__global__ void quant_act_kernel(const float* __restrict__ x, int64_t nblk, uint8_t* __restrict__ xa) {
+    const int64_t w = (int64_t) blockIdx.x * (blockDim.x / 32) + threadIdx.x / 32;
+    const int lane = threadIdx.x & 31;
+    if (w >= nblk) return;
+    const float v0 = x[w * 64 + lane], v1 = x[w * 64 + 32 + lane];
+    float a0 = fabsf(v0), a1 = fabsf(v1);
+#pragma unroll
+    for (int o = 16; o > 0; o >>= 1) {
+        a0 = fmaxf(a0, __shfl_xor_sync(0xffffffffu, a0, o));
+        a1 = fmaxf(a1, __shfl_xor_sync(0xffffffffu, a1, o));
+    }
+    const int q0 = a0 > 0.0f ? __float2int_rn(v0 * (127.0f / a0)) : 0;
+    const int q1 = a1 > 0.0f ? __float2int_rn(v1 * (127.0f / a1)) : 0;
+    int s0 = q0, s1 = q1;
+#pragma unroll
+    for (int o = 16; o > 0; o >>= 1) {
+        s0 += __shfl_xor_sync(0xffffffffu, s0, o);
+        s1 += __shfl_xor_sync(0xffffffffu, s1, o);
+    }
+    uint8_t* out = xa + w * AB;
+    out[perm32(lane)] = (uint8_t) (int8_t) q0;
+    out[32 + perm32(lane)] = (uint8_t) (int8_t) q1;
+    if (lane == 0)
+        *(float4*) (out + 64) = make_float4(a0 / 127.0f, -(MAGICF + (float) s0), a1 / 127.0f, -(MAGICF + (float) s1));
+}
+
+// ---- grouping: counts, offsets and tiles, placement
+__global__ void count_kernel(const int32_t* __restrict__ ids, int64_t n, int E, int32_t* __restrict__ cnt) {
+    extern __shared__ int32_t hist[];
+    for (int e = threadIdx.x; e < E; e += blockDim.x) hist[e] = 0;
+    __syncthreads();
+    for (int64_t i = (int64_t) blockIdx.x * blockDim.x + threadIdx.x; i < n; i += (int64_t) gridDim.x * blockDim.x) {
+        const int e = ids[i];
+        if ((unsigned) e < (unsigned) E) atomicAdd(&hist[e], 1);
+    }
+    __syncthreads();
+    for (int e = threadIdx.x; e < E; e += blockDim.x)
+        if (hist[e]) atomicAdd(&cnt[e], hist[e]);
+}
+
+// exclusive prefix sum over the block (blockDim a multiple of 32); *total = the block's sum
+__device__ int block_excl_sum(int v, int* total, int* sh) {
+    const int lane = threadIdx.x & 31, w = threadIdx.x >> 5, nw = blockDim.x >> 5;
+    int x = v;
+#pragma unroll
+    for (int o = 1; o < 32; o <<= 1) {
+        const int y = __shfl_up_sync(0xffffffffu, x, o);
+        if (lane >= o) x += y;
+    }
+    if (lane == 31) sh[w] = x;
+    __syncthreads();
+    if (w == 0) {
+        int s = lane < nw ? sh[lane] : 0;
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int o = 1; o < 32; o <<= 1) {
+            const int y = __shfl_up_sync(0xffffffffu, s, o);
+            if (lane >= o) s += y;
+        }
+        sh[lane] = s;
+    }
+    __syncthreads();
+    const int r = x - v + (w > 0 ? sh[w - 1] : 0);
+    *total = sh[nw - 1];
+    __syncthreads();   // sh is reused by the next call
+    return r;
+}
+
+// one block, a thread per expert (E <= 1024)
+__global__ void scan_kernel(Tables tb, int E) {
+    __shared__ int sh[32];
+    const int e = threadIdx.x;
+    const int c = e < E ? tb.cnt[e] : 0, nt = (c + kTileRows - 1) / kTileRows;
+    int rows = 0, tiles = 0;
+    const int o = block_excl_sum(c, &rows, sh), to = block_excl_sum(nt, &tiles, sh);
+    if (e < E) {
+        tb.off[e] = o;
+        tb.fill[e] = o;
+        tb.ts[e] = to;
+        for (int i = 0; i < nt; ++i) tb.tiles[to + i] = make_int2(e, o + i * kTileRows);
+    }
+    if (e == 0) {
+        tb.off[E] = rows;
+        tb.ts[E] = tiles;
+    }
+}
+
+__global__ void place_kernel(const int32_t* __restrict__ ids, int64_t n, int k, int E, Tables tb,
+                             int32_t* __restrict__ slot, int32_t* __restrict__ src) {
+    const int64_t i = (int64_t) blockIdx.x * blockDim.x + threadIdx.x;
+    if (i >= n) return;
+    const int e = ids[i];
+    if ((unsigned) e >= (unsigned) E) { slot[i] = 0; return; }   // (the router never writes one)
+    const int p = atomicAdd(&tb.fill[e], 1);
+    slot[i] = p;
+    src[p] = (int32_t) (i / k);
+}
+
+// ---- the expert products
+#if defined(__CUDA_ARCH__) && __CUDA_ARCH__ >= 800
+__device__ __forceinline__ void cp16(void* dst, const void* src) {
+    asm volatile("cp.async.cg.shared.global [%0], [%1], 16;\n" ::"r"((unsigned) __cvta_generic_to_shared(dst)),
+                 "l"(src));
+}
+__device__ __forceinline__ void cp4(void* dst, const void* src) {
+    asm volatile("cp.async.ca.shared.global [%0], [%1], 4;\n" ::"r"((unsigned) __cvta_generic_to_shared(dst)),
+                 "l"(src));
+}
+__device__ __forceinline__ void cp_commit() { asm volatile("cp.async.commit_group;\n" ::); }
+template <int N> __device__ __forceinline__ void cp_wait() { asm volatile("cp.async.wait_group %0;\n" ::"n"(N)); }
+// d = A (16 x 32 s8, row) * B (32 x 8 s8, col), int32, from zero
+__device__ __forceinline__ void mma_s8(int (&d)[4], const uint32_t (&a)[4], uint32_t b0, uint32_t b1) {
+    asm("mma.sync.aligned.m16n8k32.row.col.s32.s8.s8.s32 {%0,%1,%2,%3}, {%4,%5,%6,%7}, {%8,%9}, {%10,%10,%10,%10};\n"
+        : "=r"(d[0]), "=r"(d[1]), "=r"(d[2]), "=r"(d[3])
+        : "r"(a[0]), "r"(a[1]), "r"(a[2]), "r"(a[3]), "r"(b0), "r"(b1), "r"(0));
+}
+#endif
+
+// One work item = (tile of up to 64 routed rows of expert e, a block of 256 weight rows); a persistent grid walks
+// the batch's items (their count is on the device).  GU: gate/up rows of 128 features against the rows' tokens'
+// activations (`act` per token, 2560 values), SwiGLU, H to int8 per 32 features into `out` (per row, 640 values).
+// !GU: down rows (256 outputs) against H (`act` per row), FP32 into `dm` per row.
+// Warp (wf, wt): weight rows 64 wf.. as four m16 tiles (GU: a tile = 8 features, its gate rows as mma rows 0-7 and
+// its up rows as 8-15, so a lane holds gate and up of one feature: SwiGLU in registers), tile rows 16 wt.. as two n8.
+template <bool GU>
+__global__ void __launch_bounds__(THREADS, 1)
+expert_kernel(const Batch b, const Tables tb, const uint8_t* __restrict__ act, const int32_t* __restrict__ src,
+              uint8_t* __restrict__ out, float* __restrict__ dm) {
+#if defined(__CUDA_ARCH__) && __CUDA_ARCH__ >= 800
+    constexpr int NKB = GU ? 40 : 10;                 // 64-weight blocks along K
+    constexpr int NFB = GU ? 5 : 10;                  // weight-row blocks per tile
+    constexpr int CODE_LD = GU ? 640 : 160;           // code bytes per weight row
+    constexpr size_t O_CODES = GU ? O_GU_CODES : O_D_CODES, O_SC = GU ? O_GU_SC : O_D_SC;
+    constexpr int ACT_LD = NKB * AB;                  // bytes per activation row: 3200 (a token), 800 (a row's H)
+    constexpr unsigned M2 = 0x03030303u;
+    extern __shared__ __align__(16) uint8_t smem[];
+    const __half* wsc = (const __half*) smem;                     // [256][NKB] the work item's weight scales
+    uint8_t* stages = smem + WROWS * NKB * 2;                     // [STAGES] x {codes [256][16], act [64][AB]}
+    int* srow = (int*) (stages + STAGES * STAGE_BYTES);           // [64] the activation row of each tile row
+
+    const int tid = threadIdx.x, lane = tid & 31, warp = tid >> 5, g = lane >> 2, tig = lane & 3;
+    const int wf = warp & 3, nb0 = 16 * (warp >> 2);
+    int ra[4], rb[4];                                             // the local weight rows of mma rows g and g + 8
+#pragma unroll
+    for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) {
+        if (GU) { ra[i] = 2 * (32 * wf + 8 * i + g); rb[i] = ra[i] + 1; }
+        else { ra[i] = 64 * wf + 16 * i + g; rb[i] = ra[i] + 8; }
+    }
+    const int t0 = tb.ts[b.e0], nwork = (tb.ts[b.e1] - t0) * NFB;
+    for (int w = blockIdx.x; w < nwork; w += gridDim.x) {
+        const int2 tl = tb.tiles[t0 + w / NFB];
+        const int fb = w % NFB, e = tl.x, row0 = tl.y, nrows = min(kTileRows, tb.off[e + 1] - row0);
+        const uint8_t* blob = b.blob[e - b.e0];
+        const int rbase = fb * WROWS;
+        __syncthreads();                                          // the previous item is done with the buffers
+        if (tid < kTileRows) {
+            const int r = row0 + min(tid, nrows - 1);             // rows past the tile's end repeat its last one
+            srow[tid] = GU ? src[r] : r;
+        }
+        for (int c = tid; c < WROWS * 5; c += THREADS) {          // the scales: 5 x 16 B (GU) or 5 x 4 B a row
+            const int r = c / 5, q = c % 5;
+            if (GU) cp16(smem + r * 80 + q * 16, blob + O_SC + (size_t) (rbase + r) * 80 + q * 16);
+            else cp4(smem + r * 20 + q * 4, blob + O_SC + (size_t) (rbase + r) * 20 + q * 4);
+        }
+        __syncthreads();                                          // srow
+        auto load = [&](int kb) {
+            uint8_t* st = stages + (kb % STAGES) * STAGE_BYTES;
+            if (tid < WROWS) cp16(st + tid * 16, blob + O_CODES + (size_t) (rbase + tid) * CODE_LD + kb * 16);
+            const int a = tid - (THREADS - kTileRows * 5);        // the last 320 threads: 64 rows x 5 x 16 B
+            if (a >= 0) {
+                const int r = a / 5, q = a % 5;
+                cp16(st + WROWS * 16 + r * AB + q * 16, act + (size_t) srow[r] * ACT_LD + kb * AB + q * 16);
+            }
+        };
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int s = 0; s < STAGES - 1; ++s) {
+            if (s < NKB) load(s);
+            cp_commit();
+        }
+        // a warp whose rows are all past the tile's end only takes part in the loads
+        const bool on0 = nb0 < nrows, on1 = nb0 + 8 < nrows;
+        float acc[4][2][4];
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i)
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int n = 0; n < 2; ++n)
+#pragma unroll
+                for (int q = 0; q < 4; ++q) acc[i][n][q] = 0.0f;
+        for (int kb = 0; kb < NKB; ++kb) {
+            cp_wait<STAGES - 2>();
+            __syncthreads();
+            if (kb + STAGES - 1 < NKB) load(kb + STAGES - 1);
+            cp_commit();
+            if (!on0) continue;
+            const uint8_t* st = stages + (kb % STAGES) * STAGE_BYTES;
+            const uint8_t* sa = st + WROWS * 16;
+            uint2 bq[2][2];                                       // [n8 tile][half]: the B registers
+            float4 sc[2][2];                                      // [n8 tile][column 2 tig + c]: {d0, c0, d1, c1}
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int n = 0; n < 2; ++n) {
+                if (n == 1 && !on1) break;
+                const uint8_t* r = sa + (nb0 + 8 * n + g) * AB + 8 * tig;
+                bq[n][0] = *(const uint2*) r;
+                bq[n][1] = *(const uint2*) (r + 32);
+                sc[n][0] = *(const float4*) (sa + (nb0 + 8 * n + 2 * tig) * AB + 64);
+                sc[n][1] = *(const float4*) (sa + (nb0 + 8 * n + 2 * tig + 1) * AB + 64);
+            }
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) {
+                const uint4 ca = *(const uint4*) (st + ra[i] * 16), cb = *(const uint4*) (st + rb[i] * 16);
+                const float da = __half2float(wsc[ra[i] * NKB + kb]), db = __half2float(wsc[rb[i] * NKB + kb]);
+                const int s = 2 * tig;
+                const uint32_t a0[4] = {(ca.x >> s) & M2, (cb.x >> s) & M2, (ca.y >> s) & M2, (cb.y >> s) & M2};
+                const uint32_t a1[4] = {(ca.z >> s) & M2, (cb.z >> s) & M2, (ca.w >> s) & M2, (cb.w >> s) & M2};
+#pragma unroll
+                for (int n = 0; n < 2; ++n) {
+                    if (n == 1 && !on1) break;
+                    int d0[4], d1[4];
+                    mma_s8(d0, a0, bq[n][0].x, bq[n][0].y);
+                    mma_s8(d1, a1, bq[n][1].x, bq[n][1].y);
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int q = 0; q < 4; ++q) {
+                        const float4 z = sc[n][q & 1];
+                        const float u0 = __int_as_float(MAGIC + d0[q]) + z.y, u1 = __int_as_float(MAGIC + d1[q]) + z.w;
+                        acc[i][n][q] = fmaf(q < 2 ? da : db, fmaf(z.z, u1, z.x * u0), acc[i][n][q]);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        if (!on0) continue;
+        if (GU) {
+            // SwiGLU of feature 32 wf + 8 i + g (lane g of m tile i), tile rows nb0 + 8 n + 2 tig + c; H to int8 per
+            // row over the warp's 32 features (= one 32-value half-block of the down product's K)
+            const int blk = 4 * fb + wf;
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int n = 0; n < 2; ++n) {
+                if (n == 1 && !on1) break;
+#pragma unroll
+                for (int c = 0; c < 2; ++c) {
+                    float h[4], am = 0.0f;
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) {
+                        const float gt = acc[i][n][c], up = acc[i][n][2 + c];
+                        h[i] = gt / (1.0f + __expf(-gt)) * up;
+                        am = fmaxf(am, fabsf(h[i]));
+                    }
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int o = 4; o < 32; o <<= 1) am = fmaxf(am, __shfl_xor_sync(0xffffffffu, am, o));
+                    const float inv = am > 0.0f ? 127.0f / am : 0.0f;
+                    int qv[4], sum = 0;
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) { qv[i] = __float2int_rn(h[i] * inv); sum += qv[i]; }
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int o = 4; o < 32; o <<= 1) sum += __shfl_xor_sync(0xffffffffu, sum, o);
+                    const int r = nb0 + 8 * n + 2 * tig + c;
+                    if (r < nrows) {
+                        uint8_t* o = out + (size_t) (row0 + r) * (10 * AB) + (blk >> 1) * AB;
+                        const int hh = blk & 1;
+#pragma unroll
+                        for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) o[32 * hh + perm32(8 * i + g)] = (uint8_t) (int8_t) qv[i];
+                        if (g == 0) *(float2*) (o + 64 + 8 * hh) = make_float2(am / 127.0f, -(MAGICF + (float) sum));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        } else {
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i)
+#pragma unroll
+                for (int n = 0; n < 2; ++n) {
+                    if (n == 1 && !on1) break;
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int q = 0; q < 4; ++q) {
+                        const int r = nb0 + 8 * n + 2 * tig + (q & 1);
+                        if (r < nrows) dm[(size_t) (row0 + r) * 2560 + rbase + (q < 2 ? ra[i] : rb[i])] = acc[i][n][q];
+                    }
+                }
+        }
+    }
+#endif
+}
+
+unsigned blocks(int64_t n, int per) { return (unsigned) ((n + per - 1) / per); }
+
+struct DevInfo {
+    bool done = false;
+    int cc = 0, sms = 0, occ_gu = 0, occ_d = 0;
+};
+std::mutex g_mu;
+DevInfo g_dev[32];
+
+const DevInfo& dev_info() {
+    int dev = 0;
+    cudaGetDevice(&dev);
+    std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lk(g_mu);
+    DevInfo& d = g_dev[dev & 31];
+    if (d.done) return d;
+    d.done = true;
+    int major = 0, minor = 0;
+    cudaDeviceGetAttribute(&major, cudaDevAttrComputeCapabilityMajor, dev);
+    cudaDeviceGetAttribute(&minor, cudaDevAttrComputeCapabilityMinor, dev);
+    cudaDeviceGetAttribute(&d.sms, cudaDevAttrMultiProcessorCount, dev);
+    d.cc = 10 * major + minor;
+    if (d.cc < 80) return d;
+    // the device code of this card's arch must have the kernels (a build without an sm_80+ target has an empty body)
+    cudaFuncAttributes fa{};
+    if (cudaFuncGetAttributes(&fa, expert_kernel<true>) != cudaSuccess || fa.ptxVersion < 80) {
+        cudaGetLastError();
+        d.cc = 0;
+        return d;
+    }
+    ck(cudaFuncSetAttribute(expert_kernel<true>, cudaFuncAttributeMaxDynamicSharedMemorySize, (int) smem_bytes(true)),
+       "smem gu");
+    ck(cudaFuncSetAttribute(expert_kernel<false>, cudaFuncAttributeMaxDynamicSharedMemorySize, (int) smem_bytes(false)),
+       "smem down");
+    cudaOccupancyMaxActiveBlocksPerMultiprocessor(&d.occ_gu, expert_kernel<true>, THREADS, smem_bytes(true));
+    cudaOccupancyMaxActiveBlocksPerMultiprocessor(&d.occ_d, expert_kernel<false>, THREADS, smem_bytes(false));
+    if (d.occ_gu < 1 || d.occ_d < 1) d.cc = 0;                   // does not fit this card: the MMQ path
+    cudaGetLastError();
+    return d;
+}
+
+}  // namespace
+
+bool built() { return true; }
+bool available() { return dev_info().cc >= 80; }
+// 0.1.36: on by default for the Q2_0 pack (+13-23% prompts on an RTX 5070; teacher-forced against the FP16 path as
+// close as MMQ at 8K and closer at 32K: phaseA-tests s18-tf); STRATA_PF_FUSED=0 keeps MMQ.  The native packs' kernels
+// (moe_fused_iq) stay opt-in: STRATA_PF_FUSED=1 (requested()).
+bool enabled() {
+    static const bool env = [] {
+        const char* v = std::getenv("STRATA_PF_FUSED");
+        return v == nullptr || v[0] != '0';
+    }();
+    return env && available();
+}
+bool requested() {
+    static const bool env = [] {
+        const char* v = std::getenv("STRATA_PF_FUSED");
+        return v != nullptr && v[0] == '1';
+    }();
+    return env && available();
+}
+
+size_t act_bytes(int64_t rows, int64_t cols) { return (size_t) rows * (size_t) (cols / 64) * AB; }
+size_t group_bytes(int64_t n, int n_expert) {
+    return tiles_at(n_expert) + ((size_t) (n + kTileRows - 1) / kTileRows + (size_t) n_expert) * sizeof(int2);
+}
+
+void quantize_act(const float* x, int64_t rows, int64_t cols, void* xa, void* stream) {
+    if (rows <= 0) return;
+    const int64_t nblk = rows * (cols / 64);
+    quant_act_kernel<<<blocks(nblk, 8), 256, 0, (cudaStream_t) stream>>>(x, nblk, (uint8_t*) xa);
+    ck(cudaGetLastError(), "quantize_act");
+}
+
+void group(const int32_t* ids, int64_t n, int k, int n_expert, void* scratch, int32_t* slot, int32_t* src,
+           void* stream) {
+    if (n_expert < 1 || n_expert > 1024) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "prefill fused experts: %d experts (the grouping takes 1 to 1024)\n", n_expert);
+        std::exit(1);
+    }
+    const cudaStream_t s = (cudaStream_t) stream;
+    const Tables tb = tables(scratch, n_expert);
+    ck(cudaMemsetAsync(tb.cnt, 0, (size_t) n_expert * 4, s), "group memset");
+    if (n > 0) {
+        const unsigned nb = std::min<unsigned>(blocks(n, 1024), 4u * (unsigned) std::max(dev_info().sms, 1));
+        count_kernel<<<nb, 1024, (size_t) n_expert * 4, s>>>(ids, n, n_expert, tb.cnt);
+    }
+    scan_kernel<<<1, (unsigned) ((n_expert + 31) / 32 * 32), 0, s>>>(tb, n_expert);
+    if (n > 0) place_kernel<<<blocks(n, 256), 256, 0, s>>>(ids, n, k, n_expert, tb, slot, src);
+    ck(cudaGetLastError(), "group");
+}
+
+void experts(const Batch& b, int n_expert, int64_t n, const void* scratch, const void* xa, const int32_t* src,
+             void* ha, float* dm, void* stream) {
+    if (b.e1 <= b.e0 || n <= 0) return;
+    const DevInfo& d = dev_info();
+    const cudaStream_t s = (cudaStream_t) stream;
+    const Tables tb = tables(const_cast<void*>(scratch), n_expert);
+    // the most tiles the batch can have: every row in it, plus a partial tile per expert
+    const int64_t tiles = (n + kTileRows - 1) / kTileRows + (b.e1 - b.e0);
+    const unsigned g_gu = (unsigned) std::min<int64_t>(tiles * 5, (int64_t) d.sms * d.occ_gu);
+    const unsigned g_d = (unsigned) std::min<int64_t>(tiles * 10, (int64_t) d.sms * d.occ_d);
+    expert_kernel<true><<<g_gu, THREADS, smem_bytes(true), s>>>(b, tb, (const uint8_t*) xa, src, (uint8_t*) ha,
+                                                                nullptr);
+    expert_kernel<false><<<g_d, THREADS, smem_bytes(false), s>>>(b, tb, (const uint8_t*) ha, src, nullptr, dm);
+    ck(cudaGetLastError(), "experts");
+}
+
+}  // namespace strata::prefill::fused

src/prefill/moe_fused_iq.cu

@@ -0,0 +1,630 @@
+// src/prefill/moe_fused_iq.cu - see include/strata/prefill/moe_fused_iq.hpp (#136: the native packs' prompt experts on
+// the fused int8 kernels of moe_fused.cu).
+//
+// The arithmetic.  An activation block of 32 values is x = d_x * a, a = round(x / d_x) in -127..127, stored in natural
+// order (per 64 values: 64 codes, then {d_0, d_1} and 8 unused bytes - 80 bytes, the Q2_0 path's size).  A weight
+// block of 32 (or 16) values is w = d_w * q with q an int8: the i-quants' codebook entries with their signs applied
+// (IQ2_XXS / IQ2_XS / IQ2_S: 0..43, IQ3_XXS: 0..62, IQ3_S: 0..15, IQ4_XS / IQ4_NL: -127..113), Q2_0's code - 1.  So
+//     sum w x = d_w * d_x * sum q a,     |sum q a| <= 32 * 127 * 127 < 2^22,
+// and the int32 dot becomes a float exactly with one float add: the mma starts from C = 0x4B400000 (the bits of
+// 1.5 * 2^23), so as_float(D) - 1.5 * 2^23 is the dot.  Per output and 32 values: that add, d_w * d_x, one fma (the
+// formats with a scale per 16 values: two dots, each times its d_w, then d_x).  d_w is llama.cpp's own: IQ2_XXS
+// d (2s + 1) / 8, IQ2_XS / IQ2_S d (2s + 1) / 8 per 16, IQ3_XXS d (2s + 1) / 4, IQ3_S d (2s + 1), IQ4_XS d (s - 32),
+// IQ4_NL and Q2_0 d (dequantize_row_* in ggml-quants.c, mmq-load-tiles.cuh).
+//
+// The load stage.  Per 64 values of K (a stage), a thread decodes one 32-value sub-block of one of the work item's
+// weight rows: its block bytes are read from the blob with 16-bit loads (the GGUF blocks are 2-byte aligned: 66 / 74 /
+// 82 / 98 / 110 / 136 / 18 bytes) one stage ahead into registers (and two 256-value blocks ahead into L2), then turned
+// into 32 int8 and the sub-block's scales in shared memory, double-buffered.  The codebooks live in shared memory (up
+// to 8 KB, IQ2_S).  The activations arrive by cp.async, four stages deep, as in moe_fused.cu; the fragments come by
+// ldmatrix.  The products are mma.sync m16n8k32 (m16n8k16 for the formats with a scale per 16 values); the epilogues
+// (SwiGLU, H to int8 per 32 features; down into the per-slot rows) are moe_fused.cu's.
+#include "strata/prefill/moe_fused_iq.hpp"
+
+#include <cuda_fp16.h>
+#include <cuda_runtime.h>
+
+#include "ggml.h"
+
+#define GGML_COMMON_DECL_CUDA
+#define GGML_COMMON_IMPL_CUDA
+#include "ggml-common.h"
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <cstdio>
+#include <cstdlib>
+#include <mutex>
+
+namespace strata::prefill::fused {
+namespace {
+
+void ck(cudaError_t e, const char* what) {
+    if (e != cudaSuccess) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "prefill fused experts (native): %s: %s\n", what, cudaGetErrorString(e));
+        std::exit(1);
+    }
+}
+
+constexpr int AB = 80;                  // activation bytes per 64 values: 64 codes, {d0, d1}, 8 unused
+constexpr int MAGIC = 0x4B400000;       // the bits of 1.5 * 2^23
+constexpr float MAGICF = 12582912.0f;
+// 16 warps, each 64 weight rows x 16 routed rows; WW of them along the weight rows and 16 / WW along the routed rows: a
+// work item is (WR = 64 WW weight rows) x (TR = 256 / WW routed rows of one expert) - 256 x 64 or 128 x 128, chosen
+// per launch by the rows per expert (pick_ww)
+constexpr int THREADS = 512;
+constexpr int WLD = 80;                 // bytes per decoded weight row of a stage: 64 int8 + 16 (no bank conflicts)
+__host__ __device__ constexpr int tile_rows(int ww) { return 256 / ww; }
+__host__ __device__ constexpr int weight_rows(int ww) { return 64 * ww; }
+constexpr int ASTAGES = 4;              // cp.async depth of the activations (64 values of K a stage)
+constexpr int GU_ROWS_K = 2560, D_ROWS_K = 640;   // K of gate/up (n_embd) and of down (n_ff)
+
+// the formats (ggml type ids)
+constexpr int T_IQ2_XXS = GGML_TYPE_IQ2_XXS, T_IQ2_XS = GGML_TYPE_IQ2_XS, T_IQ2_S = GGML_TYPE_IQ2_S,
+              T_IQ3_XXS = GGML_TYPE_IQ3_XXS, T_IQ3_S = GGML_TYPE_IQ3_S, T_IQ4_XS = GGML_TYPE_IQ4_XS,
+              T_IQ4_NL = GGML_TYPE_IQ4_NL, T_Q2_0 = GGML_TYPE_Q2_0;
+static_assert(sizeof(block_iq2_xxs) == 66 && sizeof(block_iq2_xs) == 74 && sizeof(block_iq2_s) == 82 &&
+              sizeof(block_iq3_xxs) == 98 && sizeof(block_iq3_s) == 110 && sizeof(block_iq4_xs) == 136 &&
+              sizeof(block_iq4_nl) == 18 && sizeof(block_q2_0) == 18, "the block layouts this file decodes");
+
+// block bytes, scale per 16 values, codebook bytes in shared memory
+__host__ __device__ constexpr int block_bytes(int t) {
+    return t == T_IQ2_XXS ? 66 : t == T_IQ2_XS ? 74 : t == T_IQ2_S ? 82 : t == T_IQ3_XXS ? 98 : t == T_IQ3_S ? 110
+         : t == T_IQ4_XS ? 136 : 18;
+}
+__host__ __device__ constexpr bool per16(int t) { return t == T_IQ2_XS || t == T_IQ2_S; }
+__host__ __device__ constexpr int grid_bytes(int t) {
+    return t == T_IQ2_XXS ? 256 * 8 : t == T_IQ2_XS ? 512 * 8 : t == T_IQ2_S ? 1024 * 8 : t == T_IQ3_XXS ? 256 * 4
+         : t == T_IQ3_S ? 512 * 4 : 0;
+}
+__host__ __device__ constexpr size_t smem_bytes(int t, int ww) {
+    return (size_t) 2 * weight_rows(ww) * (WLD + 16) + (size_t) ASTAGES * tile_rows(ww) * AB +
+           (size_t) tile_rows(ww) * 4 + grid_bytes(t);
+}
+
+// moe_fused.cu's grouping tables (the same layout: fused::group writes them)
+struct Tables {
+    int32_t *cnt, *off, *fill, *ts;
+    int2* tiles;
+};
+size_t tiles_at(int n_expert) { return ((size_t) (4 * n_expert + 2) * 4 + 15) / 16 * 16; }
+Tables tables(void* scratch, int n_expert) {
+    int32_t* p = (int32_t*) scratch;
+    return {p, p + n_expert, p + 2 * n_expert + 1, p + 3 * n_expert + 1,
+            (int2*) ((uint8_t*) scratch + tiles_at(n_expert))};
+}
+
+// ---- activations in natural order: one warp per 64 values
+__global__ void quant_act_nat_kernel(const float* __restrict__ x, int64_t nblk, uint8_t* __restrict__ xa) {
+    const int64_t w = (int64_t) blockIdx.x * (blockDim.x / 32) + threadIdx.x / 32;
+    const int lane = threadIdx.x & 31;
+    if (w >= nblk) return;
+    const float v0 = x[w * 64 + lane], v1 = x[w * 64 + 32 + lane];
+    float a0 = fabsf(v0), a1 = fabsf(v1);
+#pragma unroll
+    for (int o = 16; o > 0; o >>= 1) {
+        a0 = fmaxf(a0, __shfl_xor_sync(0xffffffffu, a0, o));
+        a1 = fmaxf(a1, __shfl_xor_sync(0xffffffffu, a1, o));
+    }
+    uint8_t* out = xa + w * AB;
+    out[lane] = (uint8_t) (int8_t) (a0 > 0.0f ? __float2int_rn(v0 * (127.0f / a0)) : 0);
+    out[32 + lane] = (uint8_t) (int8_t) (a1 > 0.0f ? __float2int_rn(v1 * (127.0f / a1)) : 0);
+    if (lane == 0) *(float4*) (out + 64) = make_float4(a0 / 127.0f, a1 / 127.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f);
+}
+
+#if defined(__CUDA_ARCH__) && __CUDA_ARCH__ >= 800
+__device__ __forceinline__ void cp16(void* dst, const void* src) {
+    asm volatile("cp.async.cg.shared.global [%0], [%1], 16;\n" ::"r"((unsigned) __cvta_generic_to_shared(dst)),
+                 "l"(src));
+}
+__device__ __forceinline__ void cp_commit() { asm volatile("cp.async.commit_group;\n" ::); }
+__device__ __forceinline__ void pf_l2(const void* p) { asm volatile("prefetch.global.L2 [%0];\n" ::"l"(p)); }
+template <int N> __device__ __forceinline__ void cp_wait() { asm volatile("cp.async.wait_group %0;\n" ::"n"(N)); }
+// d = MAGIC + A (16 x 32 s8, row) * B (32 x 8 s8, col): the int32 dot with the magic bias already added (the C
+// operand), so as_float(d) - 1.5 * 2^23 is the dot as a float
+__device__ __forceinline__ void mma32(int (&d)[4], const uint32_t (&a)[4], uint32_t b0, uint32_t b1) {
+    asm("mma.sync.aligned.m16n8k32.row.col.s32.s8.s8.s32 {%0,%1,%2,%3}, {%4,%5,%6,%7}, {%8,%9}, {%10,%10,%10,%10};\n"
+        : "=r"(d[0]), "=r"(d[1]), "=r"(d[2]), "=r"(d[3])
+        : "r"(a[0]), "r"(a[1]), "r"(a[2]), "r"(a[3]), "r"(b0), "r"(b1), "r"(MAGIC));
+}
+// the same at m16n8k16 (A 16 x 16, B 16 x 8)
+__device__ __forceinline__ void mma16(int (&d)[4], uint32_t a0, uint32_t a1, uint32_t b0) {
+    asm("mma.sync.aligned.m16n8k16.row.col.s32.s8.s8.s32 {%0,%1,%2,%3}, {%4,%5}, {%6}, {%7,%7,%7,%7};\n"
+        : "=r"(d[0]), "=r"(d[1]), "=r"(d[2]), "=r"(d[3])
+        : "r"(a0), "r"(a1), "r"(b0), "r"(MAGIC));
+}
+__device__ __forceinline__ float dotf(int d) { return __int_as_float(d) - MAGICF; }
+// four 8 x 16-byte matrices, row addresses from lanes 0-7, 8-15, 16-23, 24-31: lane (g, t) gets bytes 4t..4t+3 of row g
+// of each - an mma fragment
+__device__ __forceinline__ void ldsm4(uint32_t (&r)[4], const void* p) {
+    asm volatile("ldmatrix.sync.aligned.m8n8.x4.shared.b16 {%0,%1,%2,%3}, [%4];\n"
+                 : "=r"(r[0]), "=r"(r[1]), "=r"(r[2]), "=r"(r[3])
+                 : "r"((unsigned) __cvta_generic_to_shared(p))
+                 : "memory");
+}
+
+// ---- the load stage: a 32-value sub-block's bytes into registers, then int8 and scales
+__device__ __forceinline__ uint32_t ld16(const uint8_t* p) { return *(const uint16_t*) p; }
+__device__ __forceinline__ uint32_t ld32(const uint8_t* p) { return ld16(p) | (ld16(p + 2) << 16); }
+__device__ __forceinline__ float half_at(uint32_t w) { return __half2float(__ushort_as_half((unsigned short) w)); }
+// llama.cpp's sign unpacking: 7 bits of signs, the 8th their parity (bit 7 of v may be anything)
+__device__ __forceinline__ uint32_t unpack_ksigns(uint32_t v) {
+    v &= 0xFF;
+    const uint32_t p = __popc(v) & 1;
+    return (v ^ p << 7) * 0x01010101u;
+}
+// 8 bytes of a codebook entry with the sign byte `s` (broadcast) applied: bits 0-3 to .x, 4-7 to .y
+__device__ __forceinline__ void signed8(uint32_t gx, uint32_t gy, uint32_t s, uint32_t& qx, uint32_t& qy) {
+    const uint32_t m0 = __vcmpne4(s & 0x08040201u, 0), m1 = __vcmpne4(s & 0x80402010u, 0);
+    qx = __vsub4(gx ^ m0, m0);
+    qy = __vsub4(gy ^ m1, m1);
+}
+// 8 nibbles of q4 through a 16-entry int8 table (4 words): the low nibbles' values in .x, the high ones' in .y
+__device__ __forceinline__ void table16(uint32_t q4, const uint32_t (&t)[4], uint32_t& lo, uint32_t& hi) {
+    uint32_t tmp[2];
+    const uint32_t sel = 0x32103210u | ((q4 & 0x88888888u) >> 1);
+#pragma unroll
+    for (int i = 0; i < 2; ++i) {
+        const uint32_t sh = 16 * i;
+        const uint32_t l = __byte_perm(t[0], t[1], q4 >> sh), h = __byte_perm(t[2], t[3], q4 >> sh);
+        tmp[i] = __byte_perm(l, h, sel >> sh);
+    }
+    lo = __byte_perm(tmp[0], tmp[1], 0x6420);
+    hi = __byte_perm(tmp[0], tmp[1], 0x7531);
+}
+
+// Raw bytes of sub-block `ib` of the block at `bp` (IQ: the 256-value super-block, ib 0..7; Q2_0: the 64-value block,
+// ib 0..1; IQ4_NL: the 32-value block).
+template <int T> __device__ __forceinline__ void load_unit(const uint8_t* bp, int ib, uint32_t (&w)[5]) {
+    if constexpr (T == T_IQ2_XXS) {
+        w[0] = ld32(bp + 2 + 8 * ib); w[1] = ld32(bp + 6 + 8 * ib); w[2] = ld16(bp);
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ2_XS) {
+        w[0] = ld32(bp + 2 + 8 * ib); w[1] = ld32(bp + 6 + 8 * ib); w[2] = ld16(bp) | ((uint32_t) bp[66 + ib] << 16);
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ2_S) {
+        w[0] = ld32(bp + 2 + 4 * ib); w[1] = ld32(bp + 34 + 4 * ib);
+        w[2] = ld16(bp) | ((uint32_t) bp[66 + ib] << 16) | ((uint32_t) bp[74 + ib] << 24);
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ3_XXS) {
+        w[0] = ld32(bp + 2 + 8 * ib); w[1] = ld32(bp + 6 + 8 * ib); w[2] = ld32(bp + 66 + 4 * ib); w[3] = ld16(bp);
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ3_S) {
+        w[0] = ld32(bp + 2 + 8 * ib); w[1] = ld32(bp + 6 + 8 * ib); w[2] = ld32(bp + 74 + 4 * ib);
+        w[3] = ld16(bp) | ((uint32_t) bp[66 + ib] << 16) | ((uint32_t) ((bp[106 + ib / 2] >> (4 * (ib & 1))) & 15) << 24);
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ4_XS) {
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int k = 0; k < 4; ++k) w[k] = ld32(bp + 8 + 16 * ib + 4 * k);
+        const uint32_t ls = ((bp[4 + ib / 2] >> (4 * (ib & 1))) & 15) | (((ld16(bp + 2) >> (2 * ib)) & 3) << 4);
+        w[4] = ld16(bp) | (ls << 16);
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ4_NL) {
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int k = 0; k < 4; ++k) w[k] = ld32(bp + 2 + 4 * k);
+        w[4] = ld16(bp);
+    } else {   // Q2_0
+        w[0] = ld32(bp + 2 + 8 * ib); w[1] = ld32(bp + 6 + 8 * ib); w[2] = ld16(bp);
+    }
+}
+
+// The sub-block as 32 int8 (q[0..7], natural order) and its scales (s0: values 0-15, s1: 16-31).
+template <int T>
+__device__ __forceinline__ void convert(const uint32_t (&w)[5], const uint8_t* grid, const uint32_t (&kv)[4],
+                                        uint32_t (&q)[8], float& s0, float& s1) {
+    if constexpr (T == T_IQ2_XXS) {
+        const uint2* g = (const uint2*) grid;
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int l = 0; l < 4; ++l) {
+            const uint2 e = g[(w[0] >> (8 * l)) & 255];
+            signed8(e.x, e.y, unpack_ksigns(w[1] >> (7 * l)), q[2 * l], q[2 * l + 1]);
+        }
+        s0 = s1 = half_at(w[2]) * (float) ((w[1] >> 27) | 1) * 0.125f;
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ2_XS) {
+        const uint2* g = (const uint2*) grid;
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int l = 0; l < 4; ++l) {
+            const uint32_t c = (w[l >> 1] >> (16 * (l & 1))) & 0xFFFF;
+            const uint2 e = g[c & 511];
+            signed8(e.x, e.y, unpack_ksigns(c >> 9), q[2 * l], q[2 * l + 1]);
+        }
+        const float d = half_at(w[2]);
+        const uint32_t sc = w[2] >> 16;
+        s0 = d * (float) (2 * (sc & 15) + 1) * 0.125f;
+        s1 = d * (float) (2 * ((sc >> 4) & 15) + 1) * 0.125f;
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ2_S) {
+        const uint2* g = (const uint2*) grid;
+        const uint32_t qh = (w[2] >> 16) & 255;
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int l = 0; l < 4; ++l) {
+            const uint2 e = g[((w[0] >> (8 * l)) & 255) | ((qh << (8 - 2 * l)) & 0x300)];
+            signed8(e.x, e.y, ((w[1] >> (8 * l)) & 255) * 0x01010101u, q[2 * l], q[2 * l + 1]);
+        }
+        const float d = half_at(w[2]);
+        const uint32_t sc = w[2] >> 24;
+        s0 = d * (float) (2 * (sc & 15) + 1) * 0.125f;
+        s1 = d * (float) (2 * (sc >> 4) + 1) * 0.125f;
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ3_XXS) {
+        const uint32_t* g = (const uint32_t*) grid;
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int l = 0; l < 4; ++l) {
+            const uint32_t i0 = (w[l >> 1] >> (16 * (l & 1))) & 255, i1 = (w[l >> 1] >> (16 * (l & 1) + 8)) & 255;
+            signed8(g[i0], g[i1], unpack_ksigns(w[2] >> (7 * l)), q[2 * l], q[2 * l + 1]);
+        }
+        s0 = s1 = half_at(w[3]) * (float) (2 * (w[2] >> 28) + 1) * 0.25f;
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ3_S) {
+        const uint32_t* g = (const uint32_t*) grid;
+        const uint32_t qh = (w[3] >> 16) & 255;
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int l = 0; l < 4; ++l) {
+            const uint32_t i0 = (w[l >> 1] >> (16 * (l & 1))) & 255, i1 = (w[l >> 1] >> (16 * (l & 1) + 8)) & 255;
+            signed8(g[i0 | ((qh << (8 - 2 * l)) & 256)], g[i1 | ((qh << (7 - 2 * l)) & 256)],
+                    ((w[2] >> (8 * l)) & 255) * 0x01010101u, q[2 * l], q[2 * l + 1]);
+        }
+        s0 = s1 = half_at(w[3]) * (float) (1 + 2 * (w[3] >> 24));
+    } else if constexpr (T == T_IQ4_XS || T == T_IQ4_NL) {
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int k = 0; k < 4; ++k) table16(w[k], kv, q[k], q[4 + k]);
+        s0 = s1 = T == T_IQ4_XS ? half_at(w[4]) * (float) ((int) (w[4] >> 16) - 32) : half_at(w[4]);
+    } else {   // Q2_0: code - 1 via a byte table {-1, 0, 1, 2}
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int h = 0; h < 4; ++h) {
+            const uint32_t c = (w[h >> 1] >> (16 * (h & 1))) & 0xFFFF;
+            const uint32_t qe = __byte_perm(0x020100FFu, 0x020100FFu, c & 0x7777);
+            const uint32_t qo = __byte_perm(0x020100FFu, 0x020100FFu, (c >> 2) & 0x7777);
+            q[2 * h] = __byte_perm(qe, qo, 0x5140);
+            q[2 * h + 1] = __byte_perm(qe, qo, 0x7362);
+        }
+        s0 = s1 = half_at(w[2]);
+    }
+}
+
+template <int T> __device__ __forceinline__ const void* grid_src() {
+    if constexpr (T == T_IQ2_XXS) return iq2xxs_grid;
+    else if constexpr (T == T_IQ2_XS) return iq2xs_grid;
+    else if constexpr (T == T_IQ2_S) return iq2s_grid;
+    else if constexpr (T == T_IQ3_XXS) return iq3xxs_grid;
+    else if constexpr (T == T_IQ3_S) return iq3s_grid;
+    else return nullptr;
+}
+#endif
+
+// One work item = (TR routed rows of expert e - one or two of group()'s 64-row tiles -, a block of WR weight rows);
+// a persistent grid walks the batch's items.  GU: gate/up rows of WR / 2 features (format WT) against the rows'
+// tokens' activations, SwiGLU, H to int8 per 32 features into `out`.  !GU: down rows (format WT) against H, FP32 into
+// `dm`.  Warp (wf, wt): weight rows 64 wf.. as four m16 tiles (GU: a tile = 8 features, gate rows as mma rows 0-7 and
+// up rows as 8-15, so a lane holds gate and up of one feature), routed rows 16 wt.. as two n8.
+template <int WT, bool GU, int WW>
+__global__ void __launch_bounds__(THREADS, 1)
+native_kernel(const Batch b, const NativeGeom geo, const Tables tb, const uint8_t* __restrict__ act,
+              const int32_t* __restrict__ src, uint8_t* __restrict__ out, float* __restrict__ dm) {
+#if defined(__CUDA_ARCH__) && __CUDA_ARCH__ >= 800
+    constexpr int TR = tile_rows(WW), WR = weight_rows(WW);
+    constexpr int WT_BYTES = WR * WLD, WS_FLOATS = WR * 4, ACT_STAGE = TR * AB;
+    constexpr int NS = (GU ? GU_ROWS_K : D_ROWS_K) / 64;   // 64-value stages along K
+    constexpr int NFB = (GU ? 1280 : 2560) / WR;          // weight-row blocks per tile
+    constexpr int ACT_LD = NS * AB;                       // bytes per activation row: 3200 (a token), 800 (a row's H)
+    constexpr int BS = block_bytes(WT);
+    constexpr bool K16 = per16(WT);
+    extern __shared__ __align__(16) uint8_t smem[];
+    uint8_t* wt = smem;                                               // [2][WR][WLD] decoded int8 weights
+    float* ws = (float*) (smem + 2 * WT_BYTES);                       // [2][WR][4] their scales per 16 values
+    uint8_t* stages = (uint8_t*) (ws + 2 * WS_FLOATS);                // [ASTAGES][TR][AB] activations
+    int* srow = (int*) (stages + ASTAGES * ACT_STAGE);                // [TR] the activation row of each tile row
+    uint8_t* sgrid = (uint8_t*) (srow + TR);                          // the codebook
+
+    const int tid = threadIdx.x, lane = tid & 31, warp = tid >> 5, g = lane >> 2, tig = lane & 3;
+    const int wf = warp % WW, nb0 = 16 * (warp / WW);
+    if constexpr (grid_bytes(WT) > 0) {
+        const uint32_t* gs = (const uint32_t*) grid_src<WT>();
+        for (int i = tid; i < grid_bytes(WT) / 4; i += THREADS) ((uint32_t*) sgrid)[i] = gs[i];
+    }
+    uint32_t kv[4] = {0, 0, 0, 0};
+    if constexpr (WT == T_IQ4_XS || WT == T_IQ4_NL) {
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int k = 0; k < 16; ++k) kv[k >> 2] |= (uint32_t) (uint8_t) kvalues_iq4nl[k] << (8 * (k & 3));
+    }
+    // Local weight rows: m tile i of warp wf is rows 64 wf + 16 i.. (mma rows g and g + 8: rows +g and +8+g).  For
+    // gate/up a tile is 8 features, its gate rows then its up rows, so a lane holds gate and up of one feature.  The
+    // fragments come by ldmatrix: lane l gives the address of row (l & 7) of matrix l >> 3 - A: {rows 0-7, rows 8-15}
+    // x {bytes 0-15, 16-31} of a 32-value chunk; B: {tokens nb0 + 0-7, + 8-15} x {bytes 0-15, 16-31}.
+    const int lm = lane >> 3, l8 = lane & 7;
+    const int a_off = (64 * wf + 8 * (lm & 1) + l8) * WLD + 16 * (lm >> 1);
+    const int b_off = (nb0 + 8 * (lm >> 1) + l8) * AB + 16 * (lm & 1);
+    // this thread's decode unit (the first 2 WR threads): local weight row ur, sub-block uj of each stage
+    const bool dec = tid < 2 * WR;
+    const int ur = dec ? tid >> 1 : 0, uj = tid & 1;
+    const int t0 = tb.ts[b.e0], nwork = (tb.ts[b.e1] - t0) * NFB;
+    for (int w = blockIdx.x; w < nwork; w += gridDim.x) {
+        const int2 tl = tb.tiles[t0 + w / NFB];
+        const int fb = w % NFB, e = tl.x, row0 = tl.y;
+        if ((row0 - tb.off[e]) % TR != 0) continue;              // a 64-row tile inside an earlier item's TR rows
+        const int nrows = min(TR, tb.off[e + 1] - row0);
+        const uint8_t* blob = b.blob[e - b.e0];
+        const int rbase = fb * WR;
+        // local row ur: gate/up - feature (WR / 2) fb + 8 (ur >> 4) + (ur & 7), its up row when bit 3 is set
+        const uint8_t* wrow = GU ? blob + ((ur & 8) ? geo.up_off : 0) +
+                                       (size_t) (fb * (WR / 2) + 8 * (ur >> 4) + (ur & 7)) * geo.gu_row
+                                 : blob + geo.down_off + (size_t) (rbase + ur) * geo.d_row;
+        auto unit = [&](int s) -> const uint8_t* {                  // the block of stage s's sub-block
+            if (GU) return wrow + (s >> 2) * BS;
+            return WT == T_IQ4_NL ? wrow + (2 * s + uj) * BS : wrow + s * BS;
+        };
+        auto sub = [&](int s) { return GU ? 2 * (s & 3) + uj : uj; };
+        // the weight bytes into L2 ahead of the register loads (one stage ahead only - less than a DRAM round trip):
+        // gate/up PF super-blocks ahead (the row's two threads take a block's first and last line), down the whole row
+        // slice at once (180 or 360 bytes a row)
+        constexpr int PF = 2;
+        auto prefetch_sb = [&](int sb) {
+            if (dec && sb < GU_ROWS_K / 256) pf_l2(wrow + sb * BS + (uj ? BS - 1 : 0));
+        };
+        if (GU) {
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int sb = 0; sb < PF; ++sb) prefetch_sb(sb);
+        } else if (dec) {
+            for (size_t o = 128 * (size_t) uj; o < geo.d_row + 127; o += 256) pf_l2(wrow + min(o, geo.d_row - 1));
+        }
+        __syncthreads();                                          // the previous item is done with the buffers
+        if (tid < TR) srow[tid] = tid < nrows ? (GU ? src[row0 + tid] : row0 + tid) : -1;
+        __syncthreads();                                          // srow
+        // the rows past the item's end are not loaded: a warp entirely past it skips the products, and the columns
+        // of a partial one are never written (no reduction mixes columns)
+        auto load_act = [&](int s) {
+            uint8_t* st = stages + (s % ASTAGES) * ACT_STAGE;
+            for (int c = tid; c < TR * 5; c += THREADS) {
+                const int r = c / 5, q = c % 5;
+                if (r < nrows) cp16(st + r * AB + q * 16, act + (size_t) srow[r] * ACT_LD + s * AB + q * 16);
+            }
+        };
+        auto put = [&](const uint32_t (&raw)[5], int buf) {
+            if (!dec) return;
+            uint32_t q[8];
+            float s0, s1;
+            convert<WT>(raw, sgrid, kv, q, s0, s1);
+            uint4* d = (uint4*) (wt + buf * WT_BYTES + ur * WLD + 32 * uj);
+            d[0] = make_uint4(q[0], q[1], q[2], q[3]);
+            d[1] = make_uint4(q[4], q[5], q[6], q[7]);
+            *(float2*) (ws + buf * WS_FLOATS + ur * 4 + 2 * uj) = make_float2(s0, s1);
+        };
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int s = 0; s < ASTAGES - 1; ++s) {
+            if (s < NS) load_act(s);
+            cp_commit();
+        }
+        uint32_t raw[5] = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0};
+        if (dec) load_unit<WT>(unit(0), sub(0), raw);
+        put(raw, 0);
+        if (dec) load_unit<WT>(unit(1), sub(1), raw);
+        // a warp whose rows are all past the tile's end only takes part in the loads
+        const bool on0 = nb0 < nrows, on1 = nb0 + 8 < nrows;
+        float acc[4][2][4];
+#pragma unroll
+        for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i)
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int n = 0; n < 2; ++n)
+#pragma unroll
+                for (int q = 0; q < 4; ++q) acc[i][n][q] = 0.0f;
+        for (int s = 0; s < NS; ++s) {
+            cp_wait<ASTAGES - 2>();
+            __syncthreads();
+            if (s + ASTAGES - 1 < NS) load_act(s + ASTAGES - 1);
+            cp_commit();
+            if (GU && (s & 3) == 0) prefetch_sb((s >> 2) + PF);
+            if (on0) {
+                const uint8_t* W = wt + (s & 1) * WT_BYTES;
+                const float* S = ws + (s & 1) * WS_FLOATS;
+                const uint8_t* sa = stages + (s % ASTAGES) * ACT_STAGE;
+                // the stage's scales: per weight row 4 (per 16 values), per routed row 2 (per 32)
+                float2 dx[2][2];                                  // [n8 tile][column 2 tig + cc]
+#pragma unroll
+                for (int n = 0; n < 2; ++n)
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int cc = 0; cc < 2; ++cc) dx[n][cc] = *(const float2*) (sa + (nb0 + 8 * n + 2 * tig + cc) * AB + 64);
+#pragma unroll
+                for (int h = 0; h < 2; ++h) {                     // the stage's two 32-value halves
+                    uint32_t bq[4];                               // {n0 bytes 0-15, n0 16-31, n1 0-15, n1 16-31}
+                    ldsm4(bq, sa + b_off + 32 * h);
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) {
+                        uint32_t a[4];                            // {rows g, g + 8} x {bytes 0-15, 16-31}
+                        ldsm4(a, W + a_off + 16 * i * WLD + 32 * h);
+                        const float2 swa = *(const float2*) (S + (64 * wf + 16 * i + g) * 4 + 2 * h);
+                        const float2 swb = *(const float2*) (S + (64 * wf + 16 * i + 8 + g) * 4 + 2 * h);
+                        const float wa0 = swa.x, wa1 = swa.y, wb0 = swb.x, wb1 = swb.y;
+#pragma unroll
+                        for (int n = 0; n < 2; ++n) {
+                            if (n == 1 && !on1) break;
+                            if constexpr (K16) {
+                                // a scale per 16 weights: the two halves' dots, each times its scale, then d_x
+                                int d0[4], d1[4];
+                                mma16(d0, a[0], a[1], bq[2 * n]);
+                                mma16(d1, a[2], a[3], bq[2 * n + 1]);
+#pragma unroll
+                                for (int q = 0; q < 4; ++q) {
+                                    const float v = fmaf(q < 2 ? wa1 : wb1, dotf(d1[q]), (q < 2 ? wa0 : wb0) * dotf(d0[q]));
+                                    acc[i][n][q] = fmaf(h ? dx[n][q & 1].y : dx[n][q & 1].x, v, acc[i][n][q]);
+                                }
+                            } else {
+                                int d[4];
+                                mma32(d, a, bq[2 * n], bq[2 * n + 1]);
+#pragma unroll
+                                for (int q = 0; q < 4; ++q) {
+                                    const float p = (q < 2 ? wa0 : wb0) * (h ? dx[n][q & 1].y : dx[n][q & 1].x);
+                                    acc[i][n][q] = fmaf(p, dotf(d[q]), acc[i][n][q]);
+                                }
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            // the next stage's weights (into the other buffer, read after the next barrier).  (Decoding them before
+            // this stage's products instead was slower on the RTX 5070: a layer of 2048 / 3584 / 8192 tokens, IQ2_S
+            // 5.2 / 9.5 / 17.5 ms -> 6.0 / 10.2 / 18.3.)
+            if (s + 1 < NS) {
+                put(raw, (s + 1) & 1);
+                if (dec && s + 2 < NS) load_unit<WT>(unit(s + 2), sub(s + 2), raw);
+            }
+        }
+        if (!on0) continue;
+        if (GU) {
+            // SwiGLU of feature (WR / 2) fb + 32 wf + 8 i + g (lane g of m tile i: rows 64 wf + 16 i + g and + 8), tile
+            // rows nb0 + 8 n + 2 tig + c; H to int8 per row over the warp's 32 features (one 32-value half-block of the
+            // down product's K)
+            const int blk = WW * fb + wf;
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int n = 0; n < 2; ++n) {
+                if (n == 1 && !on1) break;
+#pragma unroll
+                for (int c = 0; c < 2; ++c) {
+                    float h[4], am = 0.0f;
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) {
+                        const float gt = acc[i][n][c], up = acc[i][n][2 + c];
+                        h[i] = gt / (1.0f + __expf(-gt)) * up;
+                        am = fmaxf(am, fabsf(h[i]));
+                    }
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int o = 4; o < 32; o <<= 1) am = fmaxf(am, __shfl_xor_sync(0xffffffffu, am, o));
+                    const float inv = am > 0.0f ? 127.0f / am : 0.0f;
+                    const int r = nb0 + 8 * n + 2 * tig + c;
+                    if (r < nrows) {
+                        uint8_t* o = out + (size_t) (row0 + r) * (10 * AB) + (blk >> 1) * AB;
+                        const int hh = blk & 1;
+#pragma unroll
+                        for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) o[32 * hh + 8 * i + g] = (uint8_t) (int8_t) __float2int_rn(h[i] * inv);
+                        if (g == 0) *(float*) (o + 64 + 4 * hh) = am / 127.0f;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        } else {
+#pragma unroll
+            for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i)
+#pragma unroll
+                for (int n = 0; n < 2; ++n) {
+                    if (n == 1 && !on1) break;
+#pragma unroll
+                    for (int q = 0; q < 4; ++q) {
+                        const int r = nb0 + 8 * n + 2 * tig + (q & 1);
+                        if (r < nrows) dm[(size_t) (row0 + r) * 2560 + rbase + 64 * wf + 16 * i + 8 * (q >> 1) + g] = acc[i][n][q];
+                    }
+                }
+        }
+    }
+#endif
+}
+
+unsigned blocks(int64_t n, int per) { return (unsigned) ((n + per - 1) / per); }
+
+// per device: whether every kernel here runs (sm_80+, device code in this build, fits), and their occupancy
+struct DevInfo {
+    bool done = false, ok = false;
+    int sms = 0, occ = 1;
+};
+std::mutex g_mu;
+DevInfo g_dev[32];
+
+template <int T, bool GU, int WW> bool setup_ww(int& occ) {
+    cudaFuncAttributes fa{};
+    if (cudaFuncGetAttributes(&fa, native_kernel<T, GU, WW>) != cudaSuccess || fa.ptxVersion < 80) return false;
+    if (cudaFuncSetAttribute(native_kernel<T, GU, WW>, cudaFuncAttributeMaxDynamicSharedMemorySize,
+                             (int) smem_bytes(T, WW)) != cudaSuccess)
+        return false;
+    int o = 0;
+    if (cudaOccupancyMaxActiveBlocksPerMultiprocessor(&o, native_kernel<T, GU, WW>, THREADS, smem_bytes(T, WW)) !=
+            cudaSuccess || o < 1)
+        return false;
+    occ = std::min(occ, o);
+    return true;
+}
+template <int T, bool GU> bool setup_one(int& occ) { return setup_ww<T, GU, 4>(occ) && setup_ww<T, GU, 2>(occ); }
+
+const DevInfo& dev_info() {
+    int dev = 0;
+    cudaGetDevice(&dev);
+    std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lk(g_mu);
+    DevInfo& d = g_dev[dev & 31];
+    if (d.done) return d;
+    d.done = true;
+    int major = 0;
+    cudaDeviceGetAttribute(&major, cudaDevAttrComputeCapabilityMajor, dev);
+    cudaDeviceGetAttribute(&d.sms, cudaDevAttrMultiProcessorCount, dev);
+    if (major < 8) return d;
+    int occ = 1 << 20;
+    d.ok = setup_one<T_IQ2_XXS, true>(occ) && setup_one<T_IQ2_XS, true>(occ) && setup_one<T_IQ2_S, true>(occ) &&
+           setup_one<T_IQ3_XXS, true>(occ) && setup_one<T_IQ3_S, true>(occ) && setup_one<T_IQ4_XS, true>(occ) &&
+           setup_one<T_Q2_0, false>(occ) && setup_one<T_IQ4_NL, false>(occ);
+    d.occ = d.ok ? occ : 1;
+    cudaGetLastError();
+    return d;
+}
+
+bool gu_covered(int t) {
+    return t == T_IQ2_XXS || t == T_IQ2_XS || t == T_IQ2_S || t == T_IQ3_XXS || t == T_IQ3_S || t == T_IQ4_XS;
+}
+bool d_covered(int t) { return t == T_Q2_0 || t == T_IQ4_NL; }
+
+template <int T, bool GU>
+void launch(int ww, unsigned grid, const Batch& b, const NativeGeom& g, const Tables& tb, const void* act,
+            const int32_t* src, void* out, float* dm, cudaStream_t s) {
+    const uint8_t* a = (const uint8_t*) act;
+    uint8_t* o = (uint8_t*) out;
+    if (ww == 4) native_kernel<T, GU, 4><<<grid, THREADS, smem_bytes(T, 4), s>>>(b, g, tb, a, src, o, dm);
+    else native_kernel<T, GU, 2><<<grid, THREADS, smem_bytes(T, 2), s>>>(b, g, tb, a, src, o, dm);
+}
+
+// The work item's shape for a layer of `n` routed rows over `n_expert` experts: 128 routed rows when an expert has
+// about one such tile (56 to 112 rows on average), else 64.  Measured on the RTX 5070 (tests/cuda/prefill_fused_iq_test,
+// a layer of 2048 / 3584 / 8192 tokens, ms, 64 -> 128): IQ2_S 5.2 -> 6.7, 9.5 -> 9.3, 17.5 -> 19.5; IQ2_XXS 4.2 ->
+// 5.8, 7.4 -> 7.6, 13.6 -> 16.5; IQ3_S 5.6 -> 6.6, 10.2 -> 8.8, 18.4 -> 19.0; IQ3_XXS 5.1 -> 6.3, 9.1 -> 8.3, 16.5 ->
+// 17.5 (256 rows was slower still).  STRATA_PF_FUSED_TILE=64|128 forces one.
+int pick_ww(int64_t n, int n_expert) {
+    static const int forced = [] {
+        const char* v = std::getenv("STRATA_PF_FUSED_TILE");
+        const int t = v ? std::atoi(v) : 0;
+        return t == 64 ? 4 : t == 128 ? 2 : 0;
+    }();
+    if (forced) return forced;
+    const double avg = (double) n / std::max(n_expert, 1);
+    return avg > 56.0 && avg <= 112.0 ? 2 : 4;
+}
+
+}  // namespace
+
+bool native_supported(int gu_type, int d_type) {
+    static const bool off = [] {   // STRATA_PF_FUSED_NATIVE=0: the native packs keep MMQ under STRATA_PF_FUSED=1 (A/B)
+        const char* v = std::getenv("STRATA_PF_FUSED_NATIVE");
+        return v != nullptr && v[0] == '0';
+    }();
+    return !off && requested() && gu_covered(gu_type) && d_covered(d_type) && dev_info().ok;   // opt-in (=1)
+}
+
+void quantize_act_native(const float* x, int64_t rows, int64_t cols, void* xa, void* stream) {
+    if (rows <= 0) return;
+    const int64_t nblk = rows * (cols / 64);
+    quant_act_nat_kernel<<<blocks(nblk, 8), 256, 0, (cudaStream_t) stream>>>(x, nblk, (uint8_t*) xa);
+    ck(cudaGetLastError(), "quantize_act_native");
+}
+
+void experts_native(const Batch& b, const NativeGeom& g, int n_expert, int64_t n, const void* scratch, const void* xa,
+                    const int32_t* src, void* ha, float* dm, void* stream) {
+    if (b.e1 <= b.e0 || n <= 0) return;
+    const DevInfo& d = dev_info();
+    if (!d.ok || !gu_covered(g.gu_type) || !d_covered(g.d_type)) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "prefill fused experts (native): types %d / %d are not covered here\n", g.gu_type, g.d_type);
+        std::exit(1);
+    }
+    const cudaStream_t s = (cudaStream_t) stream;
+    const Tables tb = tables(const_cast<void*>(scratch), n_expert);
+    const int ww = pick_ww(n, n_expert);
+    // the most 64-row tiles the batch can have (every row in it, plus a partial tile per expert) - the items of the
+    // ones inside a larger item end at once
+    const int64_t tiles = (n + kTileRows - 1) / kTileRows + (b.e1 - b.e0);
+    const unsigned g_gu = (unsigned) std::min<int64_t>(tiles * (1280 / weight_rows(ww)), (int64_t) d.sms * d.occ);
+    const unsigned g_d = (unsigned) std::min<int64_t>(tiles * (2560 / weight_rows(ww)), (int64_t) d.sms * d.occ);
+    switch (g.gu_type) {
+        case T_IQ2_XXS: launch<T_IQ2_XXS, true>(ww, g_gu, b, g, tb, xa, src, ha, nullptr, s); break;
+        case T_IQ2_XS: launch<T_IQ2_XS, true>(ww, g_gu, b, g, tb, xa, src, ha, nullptr, s); break;
+        case T_IQ2_S: launch<T_IQ2_S, true>(ww, g_gu, b, g, tb, xa, src, ha, nullptr, s); break;
+        case T_IQ3_XXS: launch<T_IQ3_XXS, true>(ww, g_gu, b, g, tb, xa, src, ha, nullptr, s); break;
+        case T_IQ3_S: launch<T_IQ3_S, true>(ww, g_gu, b, g, tb, xa, src, ha, nullptr, s); break;
+        default: launch<T_IQ4_XS, true>(ww, g_gu, b, g, tb, xa, src, ha, nullptr, s); break;
+    }
+    if (g.d_type == T_Q2_0) launch<T_Q2_0, false>(ww, g_d, b, g, tb, ha, src, nullptr, dm, s);
+    else launch<T_IQ4_NL, false>(ww, g_d, b, g, tb, ha, src, nullptr, dm, s);
+    ck(cudaGetLastError(), "experts_native");
+}
+
+}  // namespace strata::prefill::fused

src/prefill/prefill.cpp

@@ -23,6 +23,8 @@
 #include "strata/kernels/qsa_prompt_attn.hpp"
 #include "strata/kernels/qsa_select.hpp"
 #include "strata/prefill/gemm.hpp"
+#include "strata/prefill/moe_fused.hpp"
+#include "strata/prefill/moe_fused_iq.hpp"
 #include "strata/prefill/moe_mmq.hpp"
 #include "strata/prefill/kernels.hpp"
 
@@ -59,6 +61,24 @@ void swiglu(const float*, float*, int64_t, int64_t, bool, void*) {}
 void iota(int32_t*, int64_t, void*) {}
 }  // namespace strata::prefill::mmq
 #endif
+#ifndef STRATA_PREFILL_FUSED
+// #136: the fused int8 experts are CUDA-only (HIP and builds without MMQ keep the MMQ / FP16 paths)
+namespace strata::prefill::fused {
+bool built() { return false; }
+bool available() { return false; }
+bool enabled() { return false; }
+bool requested() { return false; }
+size_t act_bytes(int64_t, int64_t) { return 0; }
+size_t group_bytes(int64_t, int) { return 0; }
+void quantize_act(const float*, int64_t, int64_t, void*, void*) {}
+void group(const int32_t*, int64_t, int, int, void*, int32_t*, int32_t*, void*) {}
+void experts(const Batch&, int, int64_t, const void*, const void*, const int32_t*, void*, float*, void*) {}
+bool native_supported(int, int) { return false; }
+void quantize_act_native(const float*, int64_t, int64_t, void*, void*) {}
+void experts_native(const Batch&, const NativeGeom&, int, int64_t, const void*, const void*, const int32_t*, void*,
+                    float*, void*) {}
+}  // namespace strata::prefill::fused
+#endif
 
 namespace strata::prefill {
 namespace {
@@ -71,9 +91,9 @@ constexpr int64_t C = 10240, ZV = 6144, HV = 48;
 inline int64_t MAXBLOB() { return (int64_t) strata::kernels::cpu::expert_layout().max_blob; }
 constexpr int STAGE = 8;           // host->device expert staging ring (chunks below stream_all_min())
 // Step 3: from this chunk size on, every non-resident expert of every layer streams in a fixed order through a
-// RING_MAX-slot ring (nearly all 512 are routed at such a chunk), so the copy engine keeps working through the
+// ring_slots()-slot ring (nearly all 512 are routed at such a chunk), so the copy engine keeps working through the
 // attention halves instead of waiting for each layer's routing.
-constexpr int RING_MAX = 512;           // the arrays; the ring itself is ring_slots()
+constexpr int RING_MAX = 1024;          // the arrays; the ring itself is ring_slots(), at most ring_cap()
 // The chunk size from which every expert streams: 1024 since 0.1.30 (was 2048).  Measured on the 5070, Q2_0 / IQ2_XS,
 // fixed cache: 1,500-token prompts 621 -> 785 / 612 -> 735 tok/s, 2,000 727 -> 934 / 712 -> 892, 4,000 (its last
 // chunk) 779 -> 912 / 766 -> 844, the same output.  Below ~1,000 tokens the output changed on Q2_0 (a smaller chunk
@@ -88,6 +108,28 @@ double g_pinned_share = 1.0;
 // and 96 when a large share goes through host copies (IQ3_S on 64 GB, a third unpinned: 96 slots 1216, 256 1070 -
 // the host copies are the limit and the bigger ring only takes cache slots).  STRATA_PREFILL_RING overrides.
 int g_ring_override = 0;   // #340: set by a layer split (Prefill::set_ring_override); 0 = the rule below
+// #136: the fused experts (STRATA_PF_FUSED=1) launch on a batch of a layer's streamed experts at once, so the ring
+// should hold a whole layer's (~460 of 512 on Q2_0): with 384 slots a layer's last batch waits for slots its own
+// first batch frees.  Measured on the 5070, Q2_0, the 4K / 32K code-agent prompts (one run each): fused at 384 slots
+// +5% / +3% over MMQ, at 512 +19-22% / +11-12% (MMQ itself at 512: -2% / -1%).  P3: with the fused path's smaller
+// buffers (moe_bufs) 1024 slots - two layers' experts - fit too; 2 pairs each, prompt tok/s at 512 / 1024 slots: 4K
+// 1,512 / 1,605, 32K 2,485 / 2,660 (both chunk 8192), 128K with KV streaming 2,346 / 2,392 (the chunk falls from
+// 8192 to 6144, but more experts stay resident).  A native pack likewise when the native kernels (moe_fused_iq.hpp)
+// take any of its layers: IQ2_XS, 4K / 32K, their first version at 384 slots -3% / -6% against MMQ, at 512 +8% / 0%.
+inline bool fused_ring() {
+    if (!fused::enabled()) return false;
+    const strata::kernels::cpu::ExpertLayout& lay = strata::kernels::cpu::expert_layout();
+    if (!lay.native) return true;
+    static const bool any = [&lay] {
+        for (const auto& f : lay.fmt)
+            if (fused::native_supported(f.gu_type, f.d_type)) return true;
+        return false;
+    }();
+    return any;
+}
+// the largest ring: 512 slots; 1024 with the Q2_0 pack's fused experts (P3's smaller buffers, measured there) - the
+// native packs' fused layers were measured at 512
+inline int ring_cap() { return fused_ring() && !strata::kernels::cpu::expert_layout().native ? RING_MAX : 512; }
 inline int ring_slots(size_t T) {
     const char* v = std::getenv("STRATA_PREFILL_RING");
 #if defined(STRATA_USE_HIP)
@@ -99,9 +141,10 @@ inline int ring_slots(size_t T) {
     }();
     if (!v && g_ring_override <= 0 && wmma) return (int64_t) T >= stream_all_min() ? 96 : STAGE;
 #endif
-    const int r = v ? std::atoi(v) : g_ring_override > 0 ? g_ring_override : (g_pinned_share >= 0.9 ? 384 : 96);
+    const int pinned_ring = fused_ring() ? 1024 : 384;
+    const int r = v ? std::atoi(v) : g_ring_override > 0 ? g_ring_override : (g_pinned_share >= 0.9 ? pinned_ring : 96);
     if (v && r == STAGE) return STAGE; // Explicit opt-in to routed-only staging, including large chunks.
-    const int big = r < 16 ? 16 : r > RING_MAX ? RING_MAX : r;
+    const int big = r < 16 ? 16 : r > ring_cap() ? ring_cap() : r;
     return (int64_t) T >= stream_all_min() ? big : STAGE;
 }
 constexpr int DQ = 2;              // dequantized-expert ring (FP16 gate/up + down)
@@ -491,20 +534,41 @@ const MmqPlan& mmq_plan() {
     }();
     return plan;
 }
-uint64_t moe_set_bytes(size_t T, int64_t n_expert) {
+// #136 P3: a layout whose chunks run the fused experts (STRATA_PF_FUSED=1, the Q2_0 pack, a streamed chunk of
+// stream_all_min() tokens or more).  Its GU, H and Xq hold only the fused path's grouping tables, int8 H and per-token
+// int8 activations, and Hq nothing: ~100 KB a token less than MMQ's FP32 GU / H and per-slot q8_1 rows, which is what
+// lets a bigger chunk or ring fit in the slots the prompt path borrows.  A last chunk below stream_all_min() still runs
+// MMQ in the same buffers, so each keeps MMQ's size for stream_all_min() - 1 tokens.  `src`: the layout streams experts
+// (Prefill::init got an ExpertSource; without one no chunk takes the streamed walk, so no chunk is fused).
+bool fused_layout(size_t T, bool src) {
+    return src && fused_ring() && mmq_plan().any && ring_slots(T) > STAGE && (int64_t) T >= stream_all_min();
+}
+// The MoE buffers MMQ and the fused path share: GU and H in floats, Xq and Hq in bytes.  Without `fused` (the
+// default): MMQ's, for T tokens.
+struct MoeBufs { size_t gu, h, xq, hq; };
+MoeBufs moe_bufs(size_t T, int64_t n_expert, bool fused) {
+    if (!fused) return {T * K * 1280, T * K * 640, mmq::q8_bytes((int64_t) (T * K), N), mmq::q8_bytes((int64_t) (T * K), 640)};
+    const size_t ts = (size_t) std::min<int64_t>((int64_t) T, stream_all_min() - 1);   // MMQ's last small chunk
+    return {std::max(ts * K * 1280, (fused::group_bytes((int64_t) (T * K), (int) n_expert) + 3) / 4),
+            std::max(ts * K * 640, (fused::act_bytes((int64_t) (T * K), 640) + 3) / 4),
+            std::max(mmq::q8_bytes((int64_t) (ts * K), N), fused::act_bytes((int64_t) T, N)),
+            mmq::q8_bytes((int64_t) (ts * K), 640)};
+}
+uint64_t moe_set_bytes(size_t T, int64_t n_expert, bool fused) {
     const MmqPlan& mp = mmq_plan();
+    const MoeBufs mb = moe_bufs(T, n_expert, fused);
     Alloc a; a.count_only = true; bool ok = true;
     a.take<float>(T * n_expert, ok); a.take<float>(T * K, ok); a.take<int32_t>(T * K, ok); a.take<int32_t>(T * K, ok);
     a.take<int32_t>(T * K, ok);
     if (mp.fallback) a.take<uint16_t>(T * K * N, ok);
-    a.take<float>(T * K * 1280, ok);
+    a.take<float>(mb.gu, ok);
     if (mp.fallback) a.take<uint16_t>(T * K * 640, ok);
     a.take<float>(T * K * N, ok); a.take<float>(T * 640, ok);
     a.take<float>(T * 640, ok); a.take<uint16_t>(T * 640, ok); a.take<float>(T * N, ok); a.take<float>(T, ok);
     if (mp.any) {
-        a.take<uint8_t>(mmq::q8_bytes((int64_t) (T * K), N), ok);
-        a.take<float>(T * K * 640, ok);
-        a.take<uint8_t>(mmq::q8_bytes((int64_t) (T * K), 640), ok);
+        a.take<uint8_t>(mb.xq, ok);
+        a.take<float>(mb.h, ok);
+        a.take<uint8_t>(mb.hq, ok);
     }
     return a.used;
 }
@@ -544,7 +608,7 @@ bool Prefill::init(const core::WeightTable& wt, const core::ModelGeometry& g, co
     m.borrowed = borrow != nullptr;
     bool ok = true;
     // one-time: events, the stager, the host buffers (for the largest chunk), the identity page table
-    for (int i = 0; i < RING_MAX; ++i) {
+    for (int i = 0; i < ring_cap(); ++i) {
         if (cudaEventCreateWithFlags(&m.copied[i], cudaEventDisableTiming) != cudaSuccess) ok = false;
         if (cudaEventCreateWithFlags(&m.used[i], cudaEventDisableTiming) != cudaSuccess) ok = false;
     }
@@ -648,8 +712,10 @@ bool Prefill::carve(size_t T, void* alloc) {
     m.max_blocks = ss.qsa_states[ss.qsa_primary()].max_cells / s.idx_block + 2;
     {
         // one region for the attention half's and the MoE half's scratch (see gdn_set_bytes)
+        const bool fz = fused_layout(T, m.src != nullptr);
+        const MoeBufs mb = moe_bufs(T, m.g->n_expert, fz);
         const uint64_t region = std::max({gdn_set_bytes(T), qsa_set_bytes(T, m.cap, m.max_blocks, m.sel_batch,
-                                                                           m.attn_batch, s), moe_set_bytes(T, m.g->n_expert)});
+                                                                           m.attn_batch, s), moe_set_bytes(T, m.g->n_expert, fz)});
         uint8_t* base = o.take<uint8_t>((size_t) region, ok);
         m.region = base;
         m.region_bytes = region;
@@ -672,15 +738,15 @@ bool Prefill::carve(size_t T, void* alloc) {
         m.slot_dev = c.take<int32_t>(T * K, ok); m.src_dev = c.take<int32_t>(T * K, ok);
         const MmqPlan& mp = mmq_plan();
         m.Xs = mp.fallback ? c.take<uint16_t>(T * K * N, ok) : nullptr;
-        m.GU = c.take<float>(T * K * 1280, ok);
+        m.GU = c.take<float>(mb.gu, ok);
         m.Hh = mp.fallback ? c.take<uint16_t>(T * K * 640, ok) : nullptr;
         m.Dm = c.take<float>(T * K * N, ok);
         m.sgate = c.take<float>(T * 640, ok); m.sup = c.take<float>(T * 640, ok); m.sh_h = c.take<uint16_t>(T * 640, ok);
         m.shared = c.take<float>(T * N, ok); m.sg = c.take<float>(T, ok);
         if (mp.any) {
-            m.Xq = c.take<uint8_t>(mmq::q8_bytes((int64_t) (T * K), N), ok);
-            m.H = c.take<float>(T * K * 640, ok);
-            m.Hq = c.take<uint8_t>(mmq::q8_bytes((int64_t) (T * K), 640), ok);
+            m.Xq = c.take<uint8_t>(mb.xq, ok);
+            m.H = c.take<float>(mb.h, ok);
+            m.Hq = c.take<uint8_t>(mb.hq, ok);
         }
         if (base == nullptr) ok = false;
     }
@@ -904,7 +970,7 @@ uint64_t Prefill::bytes_needed(const core::ModelGeometry& g, const core::Session
     const int64_t cap = strata::kernels::qsa_selection_width(strata::kernels::kTopkMaxCells, s);
     const int64_t max_blocks = ss.qsa_states[ss.qsa_primary()].max_cells / s.idx_block + 2;
     o.take<uint8_t>((size_t) std::max({gdn_set_bytes(T), qsa_set_bytes(T, cap, max_blocks, 256, 32, s),
-                                       moe_set_bytes(T, g.n_expert)}), ok);
+                                       moe_set_bytes(T, g.n_expert, fused_layout(T, true))}), ok);
     for (int i = 0; i < DQ; ++i) { o.take<uint16_t>(1280 * 2560, ok); o.take<uint16_t>(2560 * 640, ok); }
     if (mmq_plan().any) {
         const MmqPlan& mp = mmq_plan();
@@ -1579,235 +1645,303 @@ bool Prefill::run(const int64_t* tokens, int64_t n, int64_t pos0, std::string& e
                     if (wgi->kind != core::WeightKind::Bf16InF32) { err = "prefill: shared gate is not BF16"; return false; }
                     m.gemm.bf16(m.mixed_bf, (const uint16_t*) wgi->data, m.sg, T, 1, N);
                     if (m.mixed_bf_lo) m.gemm.bf16(m.mixed_bf_lo, (const uint16_t*) wgi->data, m.sg, T, 1, N, 0, 1.0f);
-                    // group the (token, k) pairs by expert on the host
-                    pt.mark(kPfHostGroup, cs);
-                    // (the sync below also orders this layer's writes of slot/src/bounds after the previous
-                    // layer's kernels that read them)
-                    const bool grp_mapped = m.grp_host != nullptr;
-                    int32_t* ids_h = grp_mapped ? m.grp_host : m.ids_host.data();
-                    int32_t* slot_h = grp_mapped ? m.grp_host + m.grp_tk : m.slot_host.data();
-                    int32_t* src_h = grp_mapped ? m.grp_host + 2 * m.grp_tk : m.src_host.data();
-                    if (grp_mapped) copy_i32(m.grp_dev, m.ids, T * K, m.cs);
-                    else cudaMemcpyAsync(m.ids_host.data(), m.ids, (size_t) T * K * 4, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost, m.cs);
-                    cudaStreamSynchronize(m.cs);
-                    pt.fold();
-                    std::fill(m.cnt.begin(), m.cnt.end(), 0);
-                    for (int64_t i = 0; i < T * K; ++i) {
-                        const int32_t e = ids_h[(size_t) i];
-                        if (e < 0 || e >= m.g->n_expert) { err = "prefill: routed id out of range"; return false; }
-                        ++m.cnt[(size_t) e];
-                    }
-                    m.off[0] = 0;
-                    for (int64_t e = 0; e < m.g->n_expert; ++e) m.off[(size_t) e + 1] = m.off[(size_t) e] + m.cnt[(size_t) e];
-                    std::vector<int32_t> fill(m.off.begin(), m.off.end() - 1);
-                    for (int64_t i = 0; i < T * K; ++i) {
-                        const int32_t e = ids_h[(size_t) i];
-                        const int32_t p = fill[(size_t) e]++;
-                        slot_h[(size_t) i] = p;
-                        src_h[(size_t) p] = (int32_t) (i / K);
-                    }
-                    if (grp_mapped) {
-                        copy_i32(m.slot_dev, m.grp_dev + m.grp_tk, T * K, m.cs);
-                        copy_i32(m.src_dev, m.grp_dev + 2 * m.grp_tk, T * K, m.cs);
-                    } else {
-                        cudaMemcpyAsync(m.slot_dev, m.slot_host.data(), (size_t) T * K * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, m.cs);
-                        cudaMemcpyAsync(m.src_dev, m.src_host.data(), (size_t) T * K * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, m.cs);
-                    }
-                    // the experts, in id order: resident ones from VRAM, the others through the staging ring
-                    std::vector<int32_t> order;
-                    for (int32_t e = 0; e < m.g->n_expert; ++e) if (m.cnt[(size_t) e] > 0) order.push_back(e);
+                    // #136: STRATA_PF_FUSED=1 - the Q2_0 pack's experts on the fused int8 kernels (moe_fused.hpp),
+                    // grouped on the GPU: no host sync.  Only where every expert's place is known before the routing -
+                    // the streamed walk, in which every non-resident expert of the layer comes through the ring in id
+                    // order - and where the MMQ buffers exist: they hold the fused path's own (the per-token int8
+                    // activations in Xq, the int8 H in H, the grouping tables in GU).  Chunks below stream_all_min()
+                    // keep MMQ; without the variable nothing here runs.  A native pack's layer takes the native kernels
+                    // (moe_fused_iq.hpp) where they cover its two formats, else MMQ (or the FP16 path: IQ1_M).
                     const strata::kernels::cpu::ExpertLayout& lay = strata::kernels::cpu::expert_layout();
                     const bool use_mmq = mmq_plan().any && mmq_plan().layer[(size_t) l];
                     const int mmq_gt = lay.native ? lay.fmt[(size_t) l].gu_type : 42;
                     const int mmq_dt = lay.native ? lay.fmt[(size_t) l].d_type : 42;
-                    const size_t mmq_gub = use_mmq ? mmq::matrix_bytes(mmq_gt, 1280, N) : 0;
-                    const size_t mmq_db = use_mmq ? mmq::matrix_bytes(mmq_dt, N, 640) : 0;
-                    pt.mark(kPfGather, cs);
-                    if (use_mmq) {
-                        // step 2b: the layer's activations as q8_1 rows in expert order, straight from `mixed`
-                        mmq::quantize(m.mixed, m.src_dev, m.Xq, mmq_gt, N, N, T * K, m.cs);
-                        // each group's rows: absolute bounds (gate/up reads the layer's rows), relative ones (down
-                        // reads the group's own quantized H)
-                        const size_t n = order.size(), ng = (n + MMQ_GROUP - 1) / MMQ_GROUP;
-                        m.bounds_host.resize(n + 1 + ng * (MMQ_GROUP + 1));
-                        for (size_t j = 0; j < n; ++j) m.bounds_host[j] = m.off[(size_t) order[j]];
-                        m.bounds_host[n] = (int32_t) (T * K);
-                        for (size_t g = 0; g < ng; ++g)
-                            for (size_t i = 0; i <= MMQ_GROUP; ++i)
-                                m.bounds_host[n + 1 + g * (MMQ_GROUP + 1) + i] =
-                                    m.bounds_host[std::min(n, g * MMQ_GROUP + i)] - m.bounds_host[g * MMQ_GROUP];
-                        if (grp_mapped) {
-                            int32_t* bh = m.grp_host + 3 * m.grp_tk;
-                            std::memcpy(bh, m.bounds_host.data(), m.bounds_host.size() * 4);
-                            copy_i32(m.bounds_dev, m.grp_dev + 3 * m.grp_tk, (int64_t) m.bounds_host.size(), m.cs);
-                        } else {
-                            cudaMemcpyAsync(m.bounds_dev, m.bounds_host.data(), m.bounds_host.size() * 4,
-                                            cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, m.cs);
+                    const bool fused_nat = use_mmq && stream_all && lay.native && fused::native_supported(mmq_gt, mmq_dt);
+                    const bool fused_l = (use_mmq && stream_all && !lay.native && fused::enabled()) || fused_nat;
+                    size_t n_order = 0;                   // the routed experts (the debug report; unknown when fused)
+                    if (fused_l) {
+                        if (static bool said = false; !said) {
+                            said = true;
+                            std::fprintf(stderr, "strata: prompt experts on the fused int8 kernels (STRATA_PF_FUSED=1, "
+                                                 "#136)\n");
                         }
-                    } else {
-                        gather_rows16(m.mixed_h, m.src_dev, m.Xs, T * K, N, m.cs);
-                    }
-                    // Stage ahead: the copy stream moves blobs host -> device while the compute stream works.
-                    int stage_next = 0;
-                    std::vector<int> stage_of(order.size(), -1);
-                    // the unpinned ones are copied to pinned buffers by the stager's threads, in this order
-                    std::vector<int> job_of(order.size(), -1);
-                    if (!stream_all) {
-                        std::vector<Stager::Job> js;
-                        for (size_t j = 0; j < order.size(); ++j) {
-                            const int32_t e = order[j];
-                            if (m.host_res && m.cache && m.host_res[(size_t) l * m.g->n_expert + e] >= 0) continue;
-                            if (m.src->pinned(l, e)) continue;
-                            job_of[j] = (int) js.size();
-                            if (m.src->transient(l, e)) {   // CS-T: copied by the source
-                                js.push_back({nullptr, (size_t) lay.blob_bytes(l), m.src, (int32_t) l, e});
-                                continue;
-                            }
-                            const uint8_t* b = m.src->blob(l, e);
-                            if (!b) { err = "prefill: expert source has no blob"; return false; }
-                            js.push_back({b, (size_t) lay.blob_bytes(l)});
-                        }
-                        m.stager->start(std::move(js));
-                    }
-                    StagerDone stager_done{stream_all ? nullptr : m.stager.get()};
-                    auto stage_one = [&](size_t j) -> bool {
-                        const int32_t e = order[j];
-                        const bool resident = m.host_res && m.cache && m.host_res[(size_t) l * m.g->n_expert + e] >= 0;
-                        if (resident) return true;
-                        const int sl = stage_next;
-                        stage_next = (stage_next + 1) % STAGE;
-                        const auto th = Clock::now();
-                        const bool pinned = m.src->pinned(l, e);   // pinned: never transient
-                        const uint8_t* b = pinned ? m.src->blob(l, e) : nullptr;
-                        if (pinned && !b) { err = "prefill: expert source has no blob"; return false; }
-                        if (pinned) {
-                            // DMA straight from the page-locked arena: the copy stream only waits for the slot
-                            if (m.stage_live[sl]) cudaStreamWaitEvent(m.copy, m.used[sl], 0);
-                            cudaMemcpyAsync(m.stage_dev[sl], b, (size_t) lay.blob_bytes(l), cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, m.copy);
-                            ++stats_.experts_dma;
-                        } else {
-                            // copied to a pinned buffer by the stager (waits only if it is behind), then DMA
-                            const uint8_t* hb = m.stager->wait(job_of[j]);
-                            if (m.stage_live[sl]) cudaStreamWaitEvent(m.copy, m.used[sl], 0);
-                            cudaMemcpyAsync(m.stage_dev[sl], hb, (size_t) lay.blob_bytes(l), cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, m.copy);
-                            m.stager->issued_one(job_of[j], m.copy);
-                        }
-                        cudaEventRecord(m.copied[sl], m.copy);
-                        m.stage_live[sl] = true;
-                        stage_of[j] = sl;
-                        stats_.ms_experts_host += ms_since(th);
-                        ++stats_.experts_streamed;
-                        return true;
-                    };
-                    // one expert's products from its blob on the device; `slot` (a ring slot, or -1 for a resident
-                    // expert) is released once the blob is read
-                    auto compute = [&](size_t j, const uint8_t* blob_dev, int slot) -> bool {
-                        const int32_t e = order[j];
-                        pt.mark(kPfDequant, cs);
-                        if (use_mmq) {
-                            // gather the expert into its group slot (GGUF blocks, unchanged or converted)
-                            const size_t q = j % MMQ_GROUP;
-                            if (lay.native) {
-                                const auto& f = lay.fmt[(size_t) l];
-                                mmq::gather_native(blob_dev, blob_dev + f.up_off, mmq_gub / 2, blob_dev + f.down_off,
-                                                   mmq_db, m.grp_gu + q * mmq_gub, m.grp_d + q * mmq_db, m.cs);
-                            } else {
-                                mmq::gather_strata_q2(blob_dev, m.grp_gu + q * mmq_gub, m.grp_d + q * mmq_db, m.cs);
-                            }
-                            if (slot >= 0) cudaEventRecord(m.used[slot], m.cs);
-                            if (q + 1 < MMQ_GROUP && j + 1 < order.size()) return true;
-                            // the group's products: gate/up, swiglu, the group's H to q8_1, down
-                            const size_t j0 = j - q, g = j0 / MMQ_GROUP, n = order.size();
-                            const int ngx = (int) (q + 1);
-                            const int64_t r0 = m.bounds_host[j0], nr = m.bounds_host[j + 1] - r0;
-                            int64_t maxr = 0;
-                            for (size_t i = j0; i <= j; ++i) maxr = std::max<int64_t>(maxr, m.cnt[(size_t) order[i]]);
-                            pt.mark(kPfGemmGU, cs);
-                            // the zeroed tail after the group's last expert (see MMQ_TAIL)
-                            cudaMemsetAsync(m.grp_gu + (size_t) ngx * mmq_gub, 0, MMQ_TAIL, m.cs);
-                            cudaMemsetAsync(m.grp_d + (size_t) ngx * mmq_db, 0, MMQ_TAIL, m.cs);
-                            mmq::Product gu;
-                            gu.w = m.grp_gu; gu.type = mmq_gt; gu.w_rows = 1280; gu.w_cols = N; gu.expert_bytes = mmq_gub;
-                            gu.n = ngx; gu.xq = m.Xq; gu.bounds = m.bounds_dev + j0; gu.ids = m.ids_identity;
-                            gu.total_rows = T * K; gu.max_rows = maxr; gu.dst = m.GU; gu.ld_dst = 1280;
-                            m.mmq_ctx->run(gu, m.cs);
-                            mmq::swiglu(m.GU + r0 * 1280, m.H + r0 * 640, nr, 640, !lay.native, m.cs);
-                            pt.mark(kPfGemmD, cs);
-                            mmq::quantize(m.H + r0 * 640, nullptr, m.Hq, mmq_dt, 640, 640, nr, m.cs);
-                            mmq::Product dn;
-                            dn.w = m.grp_d; dn.type = mmq_dt; dn.w_rows = N; dn.w_cols = 640; dn.expert_bytes = mmq_db;
-                            dn.n = ngx; dn.xq = m.Hq; dn.bounds = m.bounds_dev + n + 1 + g * (MMQ_GROUP + 1);
-                            dn.ids = m.ids_identity; dn.total_rows = nr; dn.max_rows = maxr; dn.dst = m.Dm + r0 * N;
-                            dn.ld_dst = N;
-                            m.mmq_ctx->run(dn, m.cs);
-                            return true;
-                        }
-                        const int q = (int) (j % DQ);
-                        if (lay.native) {
-                            // plan v0.3 P6: a native pack's layer, dequantized by llama.cpp's own formulas
-                            const auto& f = lay.fmt[(size_t) l];
-                            strata::kernels::iq_dequant_gu_f16(f.gu_type, blob_dev, blob_dev + f.up_off, f.n_ff, f.n_embd,
-                                                               m.dq_gu[q], m.cs);
-                            strata::kernels::iq_dequant_f16(f.d_type, blob_dev + f.down_off, f.n_embd * f.n_ff, m.dq_d[q], m.cs);
-                        } else {
-                            blob_dequant_f16(blob_dev, m.dq_gu[q], m.dq_d[q], m.cs);
-                        }
-                        if (slot >= 0) cudaEventRecord(m.used[slot], m.cs);
-                        const int64_t o0 = m.off[(size_t) e], ne = m.cnt[(size_t) e];
-                        pt.mark(kPfGemmGU, cs);
-                        m.gemm.f16(m.Xs + o0 * N, m.dq_gu[q], m.GU + o0 * 1280, ne, 1280, N);
-                        swiglu_interleaved(m.GU + o0 * 1280, m.Hh + o0 * 640, ne, m.cs);
-                        pt.mark(kPfGemmD, cs);
-                        m.gemm.f16(m.Hh + o0 * 640, m.dq_d[q], m.Dm + o0 * N, ne, N, 640);
-                        return true;
-                    };
-                    if (!stream_all) {
-                        size_t staged = 0;
-                        const size_t lookahead = STAGE - 1;
-                        for (size_t j = 0; j < order.size(); ++j) {
-                            while (staged < order.size() && staged <= j + lookahead) {
-                                if (!stage_one(staged)) return false;
-                                ++staged;
-                            }
-                            const int32_t e = order[j];
-                            if (stage_of[j] < 0) {
-                                ++stats_.experts_resident;
-                                if (!compute(j, m.cache->device_slot(m.host_res[(size_t) l * m.g->n_expert + e]), -1)) return false;
-                            } else {
-                                pt.mark(kPfWaitCopy, cs);
-                                cudaStreamWaitEvent(m.cs, m.copied[stage_of[j]], 0);
-                                if (!compute(j, m.stage_dev[stage_of[j]], stage_of[j])) return false;
-                            }
-                        }
-                    } else {
-                        // the streamed walk: this layer's entries [k, kend) in id order; an entry the routing did not
-                        // pick only gives its slot back
+                        pt.mark(kPfGather, cs);
+                        // the layer's input to int8 once per token; the rows of each expert from the router's ids
+                        if (fused_nat) fused::quantize_act_native(m.mixed, T, N, m.Xq, m.cs);
+                        else fused::quantize_act(m.mixed, T, N, m.Xq, m.cs);
+                        fused::group(m.ids, T * K, (int) K, (int) m.g->n_expert, m.GU, m.slot_dev, m.src_dev, m.cs);
+                        // launches over the experts in id order, each at most kMaxBatch experts of which at most a
+                        // third of the ring streamed: the next batch's blobs arrive while one computes.  An expert
+                        // the routing did not pick has no tiles; its ring slot is given back with its batch.
+                        const size_t per = (size_t) std::max(1, m.ring / 3);
                         size_t k = seq_start[(size_t) l];
                         const size_t kend = seq_start[(size_t) l + 1];
-                        auto release_to = [&](int32_t e_stop) {
-                            while (k < kend && seq[k].e < e_stop) {
-                                cudaEventRecord(m.used[k % (size_t) m.ring], m.cs);
-                                consumed = ++k;
-                                give_back(consumed);
+                        for (int32_t e = 0; e < m.g->n_expert;) {
+                            fused::Batch b;
+                            b.e0 = e;
+                            const size_t k0 = k;
+                            for (; e < m.g->n_expert && e - b.e0 < fused::kMaxBatch; ++e) {
+                                if (k < kend && seq[k].e == e) {
+                                    if (k - k0 == per) break;
+                                    b.blob[e - b.e0] = m.stage_dev[k % (size_t) m.ring];
+                                    ++k;
+                                } else {                  // not streamed: resident (the walk streams all others)
+                                    b.blob[e - b.e0] = m.cache->device_slot(m.host_res[(size_t) l * m.g->n_expert + e]);
+                                    // counted whether routed or not (the routing stays on the GPU): at a streamed
+                                    // chunk's size (>= 1024 tokens x 10 of 512) nearly every expert is routed
+                                    ++stats_.experts_resident;
+                                }
                             }
-                        };
-                        for (size_t j = 0; j < order.size(); ++j) {
-                            const int32_t e = order[j];
-                            release_to(e);
-                            if (k < kend && seq[k].e == e) {
-                                const int sl = (int) (k % (size_t) m.ring);
+                            b.e1 = e;
+                            if (k > k0) {
+                                // one copy stream, in order: the batch's last blob covers the others
                                 pt.mark(kPfWaitCopy, cs);
-                                wait_issued(k);
-                                cudaStreamWaitEvent(m.cs, m.copied[sl], 0);
-                                if (!compute(j, m.stage_dev[sl], sl)) return false;
-                                consumed = ++k;
-                                give_back(consumed);
+                                wait_issued(k - 1);
+                                cudaStreamWaitEvent(m.cs, m.copied[(k - 1) % (size_t) m.ring], 0);
+                            }
+                            pt.mark(kPfGemmGU, cs);
+                            if (fused_nat) {
+                                const auto& f = lay.fmt[(size_t) l];
+                                const fused::NativeGeom ng{f.gu_type, f.d_type, f.gu_row, f.d_row, f.up_off, f.down_off};
+                                fused::experts_native(b, ng, (int) m.g->n_expert, T * K, m.GU, m.Xq, m.src_dev, m.H,
+                                                      m.Dm, m.cs);
                             } else {
-                                ++stats_.experts_resident;
-                                if (!compute(j, m.cache->device_slot(m.host_res[(size_t) l * m.g->n_expert + e]), -1)) return false;
+                                fused::experts(b, (int) m.g->n_expert, T * K, m.GU, m.Xq, m.src_dev, m.H, m.Dm, m.cs);
+                            }
+                            for (size_t kk = k0; kk < k; ++kk) cudaEventRecord(m.used[kk % (size_t) m.ring], m.cs);
+                            if (k > k0) {
+                                consumed = k;
+                                give_back(consumed);
                             }
                         }
-                        release_to(m.g->n_expert);
+                    } else {
+                        // group the (token, k) pairs by expert on the host
+                        pt.mark(kPfHostGroup, cs);
+                        // (the sync below also orders this layer's writes of slot/src/bounds after the previous
+                        // layer's kernels that read them)
+                        const bool grp_mapped = m.grp_host != nullptr;
+                        int32_t* ids_h = grp_mapped ? m.grp_host : m.ids_host.data();
+                        int32_t* slot_h = grp_mapped ? m.grp_host + m.grp_tk : m.slot_host.data();
+                        int32_t* src_h = grp_mapped ? m.grp_host + 2 * m.grp_tk : m.src_host.data();
+                        if (grp_mapped) copy_i32(m.grp_dev, m.ids, T * K, m.cs);
+                        else cudaMemcpyAsync(m.ids_host.data(), m.ids, (size_t) T * K * 4, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost, m.cs);
+                        cudaStreamSynchronize(m.cs);
+                        pt.fold();
+                        std::fill(m.cnt.begin(), m.cnt.end(), 0);
+                        for (int64_t i = 0; i < T * K; ++i) {
+                            const int32_t e = ids_h[(size_t) i];
+                            if (e < 0 || e >= m.g->n_expert) { err = "prefill: routed id out of range"; return false; }
+                            ++m.cnt[(size_t) e];
+                        }
+                        m.off[0] = 0;
+                        for (int64_t e = 0; e < m.g->n_expert; ++e) m.off[(size_t) e + 1] = m.off[(size_t) e] + m.cnt[(size_t) e];
+                        std::vector<int32_t> fill(m.off.begin(), m.off.end() - 1);
+                        for (int64_t i = 0; i < T * K; ++i) {
+                            const int32_t e = ids_h[(size_t) i];
+                            const int32_t p = fill[(size_t) e]++;
+                            slot_h[(size_t) i] = p;
+                            src_h[(size_t) p] = (int32_t) (i / K);
+                        }
+                        if (grp_mapped) {
+                            copy_i32(m.slot_dev, m.grp_dev + m.grp_tk, T * K, m.cs);
+                            copy_i32(m.src_dev, m.grp_dev + 2 * m.grp_tk, T * K, m.cs);
+                        } else {
+                            cudaMemcpyAsync(m.slot_dev, m.slot_host.data(), (size_t) T * K * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, m.cs);
+                            cudaMemcpyAsync(m.src_dev, m.src_host.data(), (size_t) T * K * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, m.cs);
+                        }
+                        // the experts, in id order: resident ones from VRAM, the others through the staging ring
+                        std::vector<int32_t> order;
+                        for (int32_t e = 0; e < m.g->n_expert; ++e) if (m.cnt[(size_t) e] > 0) order.push_back(e);
+                        n_order = order.size();
+                        const size_t mmq_gub = use_mmq ? mmq::matrix_bytes(mmq_gt, 1280, N) : 0;
+                        const size_t mmq_db = use_mmq ? mmq::matrix_bytes(mmq_dt, N, 640) : 0;
+                        pt.mark(kPfGather, cs);
+                        if (use_mmq) {
+                            // step 2b: the layer's activations as q8_1 rows in expert order, straight from `mixed`
+                            mmq::quantize(m.mixed, m.src_dev, m.Xq, mmq_gt, N, N, T * K, m.cs);
+                            // each group's rows: absolute bounds (gate/up reads the layer's rows), relative ones (down
+                            // reads the group's own quantized H)
+                            const size_t n = order.size(), ng = (n + MMQ_GROUP - 1) / MMQ_GROUP;
+                            m.bounds_host.resize(n + 1 + ng * (MMQ_GROUP + 1));
+                            for (size_t j = 0; j < n; ++j) m.bounds_host[j] = m.off[(size_t) order[j]];
+                            m.bounds_host[n] = (int32_t) (T * K);
+                            for (size_t g = 0; g < ng; ++g)
+                                for (size_t i = 0; i <= MMQ_GROUP; ++i)
+                                    m.bounds_host[n + 1 + g * (MMQ_GROUP + 1) + i] =
+                                        m.bounds_host[std::min(n, g * MMQ_GROUP + i)] - m.bounds_host[g * MMQ_GROUP];
+                            if (grp_mapped) {
+                                int32_t* bh = m.grp_host + 3 * m.grp_tk;
+                                std::memcpy(bh, m.bounds_host.data(), m.bounds_host.size() * 4);
+                                copy_i32(m.bounds_dev, m.grp_dev + 3 * m.grp_tk, (int64_t) m.bounds_host.size(), m.cs);
+                            } else {
+                                cudaMemcpyAsync(m.bounds_dev, m.bounds_host.data(), m.bounds_host.size() * 4,
+                                                cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, m.cs);
+                            }
+                        } else {
+                            gather_rows16(m.mixed_h, m.src_dev, m.Xs, T * K, N, m.cs);
+                        }
+                        // Stage ahead: the copy stream moves blobs host -> device while the compute stream works.
+                        int stage_next = 0;
+                        std::vector<int> stage_of(order.size(), -1);
+                        // the unpinned ones are copied to pinned buffers by the stager's threads, in this order
+                        std::vector<int> job_of(order.size(), -1);
+                        if (!stream_all) {
+                            std::vector<Stager::Job> js;
+                            for (size_t j = 0; j < order.size(); ++j) {
+                                const int32_t e = order[j];
+                                if (m.host_res && m.cache && m.host_res[(size_t) l * m.g->n_expert + e] >= 0) continue;
+                                if (m.src->pinned(l, e)) continue;
+                                job_of[j] = (int) js.size();
+                                if (m.src->transient(l, e)) {   // CS-T: copied by the source
+                                    js.push_back({nullptr, (size_t) lay.blob_bytes(l), m.src, (int32_t) l, e});
+                                    continue;
+                                }
+                                const uint8_t* b = m.src->blob(l, e);
+                                if (!b) { err = "prefill: expert source has no blob"; return false; }
+                                js.push_back({b, (size_t) lay.blob_bytes(l)});
+                            }
+                            m.stager->start(std::move(js));
+                        }
+                        StagerDone stager_done{stream_all ? nullptr : m.stager.get()};
+                        auto stage_one = [&](size_t j) -> bool {
+                            const int32_t e = order[j];
+                            const bool resident = m.host_res && m.cache && m.host_res[(size_t) l * m.g->n_expert + e] >= 0;
+                            if (resident) return true;
+                            const int sl = stage_next;
+                            stage_next = (stage_next + 1) % STAGE;
+                            const auto th = Clock::now();
+                            const bool pinned = m.src->pinned(l, e);   // pinned: never transient
+                            const uint8_t* b = pinned ? m.src->blob(l, e) : nullptr;
+                            if (pinned && !b) { err = "prefill: expert source has no blob"; return false; }
+                            if (pinned) {
+                                // DMA straight from the page-locked arena: the copy stream only waits for the slot
+                                if (m.stage_live[sl]) cudaStreamWaitEvent(m.copy, m.used[sl], 0);
+                                cudaMemcpyAsync(m.stage_dev[sl], b, (size_t) lay.blob_bytes(l), cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, m.copy);
+                                ++stats_.experts_dma;
+                            } else {
+                                // copied to a pinned buffer by the stager (waits only if it is behind), then DMA
+                                const uint8_t* hb = m.stager->wait(job_of[j]);
+                                if (m.stage_live[sl]) cudaStreamWaitEvent(m.copy, m.used[sl], 0);
+                                cudaMemcpyAsync(m.stage_dev[sl], hb, (size_t) lay.blob_bytes(l), cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, m.copy);
+                                m.stager->issued_one(job_of[j], m.copy);
+                            }
+                            cudaEventRecord(m.copied[sl], m.copy);
+                            m.stage_live[sl] = true;
+                            stage_of[j] = sl;
+                            stats_.ms_experts_host += ms_since(th);
+                            ++stats_.experts_streamed;
+                            return true;
+                        };
+                        // one expert's products from its blob on the device; `slot` (a ring slot, or -1 for a resident
+                        // expert) is released once the blob is read
+                        auto compute = [&](size_t j, const uint8_t* blob_dev, int slot) -> bool {
+                            const int32_t e = order[j];
+                            pt.mark(kPfDequant, cs);
+                            if (use_mmq) {
+                                // gather the expert into its group slot (GGUF blocks, unchanged or converted)
+                                const size_t q = j % MMQ_GROUP;
+                                if (lay.native) {
+                                    const auto& f = lay.fmt[(size_t) l];
+                                    mmq::gather_native(blob_dev, blob_dev + f.up_off, mmq_gub / 2, blob_dev + f.down_off,
+                                                       mmq_db, m.grp_gu + q * mmq_gub, m.grp_d + q * mmq_db, m.cs);
+                                } else {
+                                    mmq::gather_strata_q2(blob_dev, m.grp_gu + q * mmq_gub, m.grp_d + q * mmq_db, m.cs);
+                                }
+                                if (slot >= 0) cudaEventRecord(m.used[slot], m.cs);
+                                if (q + 1 < MMQ_GROUP && j + 1 < order.size()) return true;
+                                // the group's products: gate/up, swiglu, the group's H to q8_1, down
+                                const size_t j0 = j - q, g = j0 / MMQ_GROUP, n = order.size();
+                                const int ngx = (int) (q + 1);
+                                const int64_t r0 = m.bounds_host[j0], nr = m.bounds_host[j + 1] - r0;
+                                int64_t maxr = 0;
+                                for (size_t i = j0; i <= j; ++i) maxr = std::max<int64_t>(maxr, m.cnt[(size_t) order[i]]);
+                                pt.mark(kPfGemmGU, cs);
+                                // the zeroed tail after the group's last expert (see MMQ_TAIL)
+                                cudaMemsetAsync(m.grp_gu + (size_t) ngx * mmq_gub, 0, MMQ_TAIL, m.cs);
+                                cudaMemsetAsync(m.grp_d + (size_t) ngx * mmq_db, 0, MMQ_TAIL, m.cs);
+                                mmq::Product gu;
+                                gu.w = m.grp_gu; gu.type = mmq_gt; gu.w_rows = 1280; gu.w_cols = N; gu.expert_bytes = mmq_gub;
+                                gu.n = ngx; gu.xq = m.Xq; gu.bounds = m.bounds_dev + j0; gu.ids = m.ids_identity;
+                                gu.total_rows = T * K; gu.max_rows = maxr; gu.dst = m.GU; gu.ld_dst = 1280;
+                                m.mmq_ctx->run(gu, m.cs);
+                                mmq::swiglu(m.GU + r0 * 1280, m.H + r0 * 640, nr, 640, !lay.native, m.cs);
+                                pt.mark(kPfGemmD, cs);
+                                mmq::quantize(m.H + r0 * 640, nullptr, m.Hq, mmq_dt, 640, 640, nr, m.cs);
+                                mmq::Product dn;
+                                dn.w = m.grp_d; dn.type = mmq_dt; dn.w_rows = N; dn.w_cols = 640; dn.expert_bytes = mmq_db;
+                                dn.n = ngx; dn.xq = m.Hq; dn.bounds = m.bounds_dev + n + 1 + g * (MMQ_GROUP + 1);
+                                dn.ids = m.ids_identity; dn.total_rows = nr; dn.max_rows = maxr; dn.dst = m.Dm + r0 * N;
+                                dn.ld_dst = N;
+                                m.mmq_ctx->run(dn, m.cs);
+                                return true;
+                            }
+                            const int q = (int) (j % DQ);
+                            if (lay.native) {
+                                // plan v0.3 P6: a native pack's layer, dequantized by llama.cpp's own formulas
+                                const auto& f = lay.fmt[(size_t) l];
+                                strata::kernels::iq_dequant_gu_f16(f.gu_type, blob_dev, blob_dev + f.up_off, f.n_ff, f.n_embd,
+                                                                   m.dq_gu[q], m.cs);
+                                strata::kernels::iq_dequant_f16(f.d_type, blob_dev + f.down_off, f.n_embd * f.n_ff, m.dq_d[q], m.cs);
+                            } else {
+                                blob_dequant_f16(blob_dev, m.dq_gu[q], m.dq_d[q], m.cs);
+                            }
+                            if (slot >= 0) cudaEventRecord(m.used[slot], m.cs);
+                            const int64_t o0 = m.off[(size_t) e], ne = m.cnt[(size_t) e];
+                            pt.mark(kPfGemmGU, cs);
+                            m.gemm.f16(m.Xs + o0 * N, m.dq_gu[q], m.GU + o0 * 1280, ne, 1280, N);
+                            swiglu_interleaved(m.GU + o0 * 1280, m.Hh + o0 * 640, ne, m.cs);
+                            pt.mark(kPfGemmD, cs);
+                            m.gemm.f16(m.Hh + o0 * 640, m.dq_d[q], m.Dm + o0 * N, ne, N, 640);
+                            return true;
+                        };
+                        if (!stream_all) {
+                            size_t staged = 0;
+                            const size_t lookahead = STAGE - 1;
+                            for (size_t j = 0; j < order.size(); ++j) {
+                                while (staged < order.size() && staged <= j + lookahead) {
+                                    if (!stage_one(staged)) return false;
+                                    ++staged;
+                                }
+                                const int32_t e = order[j];
+                                if (stage_of[j] < 0) {
+                                    ++stats_.experts_resident;
+                                    if (!compute(j, m.cache->device_slot(m.host_res[(size_t) l * m.g->n_expert + e]), -1)) return false;
+                                } else {
+                                    pt.mark(kPfWaitCopy, cs);
+                                    cudaStreamWaitEvent(m.cs, m.copied[stage_of[j]], 0);
+                                    if (!compute(j, m.stage_dev[stage_of[j]], stage_of[j])) return false;
+                                }
+                            }
+                        } else {
+                            // the streamed walk: this layer's entries [k, kend) in id order; an entry the routing did not
+                            // pick only gives its slot back
+                            size_t k = seq_start[(size_t) l];
+                            const size_t kend = seq_start[(size_t) l + 1];
+                            auto release_to = [&](int32_t e_stop) {
+                                while (k < kend && seq[k].e < e_stop) {
+                                    cudaEventRecord(m.used[k % (size_t) m.ring], m.cs);
+                                    consumed = ++k;
+                                    give_back(consumed);
+                                }
+                            };
+                            for (size_t j = 0; j < order.size(); ++j) {
+                                const int32_t e = order[j];
+                                release_to(e);
+                                if (k < kend && seq[k].e == e) {
+                                    const int sl = (int) (k % (size_t) m.ring);
+                                    pt.mark(kPfWaitCopy, cs);
+                                    wait_issued(k);
+                                    cudaStreamWaitEvent(m.cs, m.copied[sl], 0);
+                                    if (!compute(j, m.stage_dev[sl], sl)) return false;
+                                    consumed = ++k;
+                                    give_back(consumed);
+                                } else {
+                                    ++stats_.experts_resident;
+                                    if (!compute(j, m.cache->device_slot(m.host_res[(size_t) l * m.g->n_expert + e]), -1)) return false;
+                                }
+                            }
+                            release_to(m.g->n_expert);
+                        }
                     }
                     pt.mark(kPfCombine, cs);
                     moe_combine(m.Dm, m.slot_dev, m.w, m.shared, m.sg, m.bo, T, m.cs);
@@ -1821,14 +1955,16 @@ bool Prefill::run(const int64_t* tokens, int64_t n, int64_t pos0, std::string& e
                             for (float v : h) c += !std::isfinite(v);
                             return c;
                         };
-                        const int64_t bgu = bad(m.GU, T * K * 1280), bdm = bad(m.Dm, T * K * N), bbo = bad(m.bo, T * N);
-                        const int64_t bh = m.H ? bad(m.H, T * K * 640) : -1;
+                        // (fused: GU and H hold the grouping tables and int8 rows, not floats)
+                        const int64_t bgu = fused_l ? 0 : bad(m.GU, T * K * 1280), bdm = bad(m.Dm, T * K * N),
+                                      bbo = bad(m.bo, T * N);
+                        const int64_t bh = m.H && !fused_l ? bad(m.H, T * K * 640) : -1;
                         static int64_t reported = -1;
                         if ((bgu || bdm || bbo || bh > 0) && reported != stats_.chunks) {
                             reported = stats_.chunks;
                             std::fprintf(stderr, "strata dbg: layer %lld (mmq %d, types %d/%d, %zu experts): non-finite GU %lld "
                                          "H %lld Dm %lld bo %lld of T %lld\n", (long long) l, (int) use_mmq, mmq_gt, mmq_dt,
-                                         order.size(), (long long) bgu, (long long) bh, (long long) bdm, (long long) bbo,
+                                         n_order, (long long) bgu, (long long) bh, (long long) bdm, (long long) bbo,
                                          (long long) T);
                         }
                     }

src/program/generate.cpp

@@ -303,6 +303,11 @@ struct Options {
     /// trace is what the plan's `h = 0.6447` refers to, and compulsory-miss measured 0.4864 because it fills
     /// with whatever the prompt touched FIRST.  Empty means no profile.
     std::string expert_profile;
+    /// #477 (--serve, opt-in): where to save what the adaptive tier learned, as a profile `--expert-profile` reads
+    /// (the resident experts first, then the routing counted since the start); on QUIT and every
+    /// `expert_profile_save_min` minutes between requests.  Empty (the default): nothing is counted or written.
+    std::string expert_profile_save;
+    double expert_profile_save_min = 10.0;
     /// R4.2d: **ON by default**, because the measurement is unambiguous and the alternative is known-broken.
     /// Without it, 17 of 10,562 layers had the hit work done when the pool returned; with it, 9,190.  The
     /// A/B arm is `--no-hit-poke`.
@@ -530,6 +535,10 @@ void usage() {
                  "                       real graph that --stage-timing cannot give.  Prints and exits.\n"
                  "  --expert-profile P   R4.2e: pre-load the VRAM tier from a `profile.bin` (see\n"
                  "                       tools/make_profile.py) instead of admitting on first use.\n"
+                 "  --expert-profile-save P  --serve, #477: save what the adaptive tier learned (the experts in\n"
+                 "                       VRAM, then the routing counted since the start) as a profile at P, on\n"
+                 "                       QUIT and every --expert-profile-save-every MIN minutes (default 10;\n"
+                 "                       0 = on QUIT only) between requests; start from it with --expert-profile P\n"
                  "  --no-hit-poke        R4.2d's A/B arm.  The hit path pokes the driver once right after its\n"
                  "                       launch so the GPU starts while the CPU pool runs; without it the work\n"
                  "                       waits for the next driver entry and does not overlap at all.\n"
@@ -947,35 +956,81 @@ bool load_control_vectors(const Options& o, const strata::core::ModelGeometry& g
 // The effective host->device bandwidth of the PCIe link: copies from pinned host memory, as the expert arena's
 // reads are.  The native default share (0.55) was measured on x16 links (~26-28 GB/s); a x8 card in a x8 slot
 // carries about half of that.  Returns < 0 when the probe cannot run (then the caller keeps the default).
-double probe_pcie_h2d_gbps() {
+//
+// #485: a single timed burst read an x16 PCIe 4 link (RTX A3000 laptop) at 18.5, 6.9 and 5.8 GB/s in three starts -
+// a link still in a low-power state, other DMA, a context not yet up to speed - and the low reading set the share.
+// Such a disturbance only ever slows a copy: nothing makes a correctly timed copy faster than the link carries.  So
+// the same 1 GiB is now copied as four bursts of 256 MiB, timed one by one, and the fastest is the link's figure (the
+// median would still follow a disturbance that lasts through half the bursts).  Each burst takes ~10 ms on an x16
+// PCIe 4 link, so the probe takes no longer than the one 1 GiB burst did.  `samples`, when given, gets every
+// burst's reading for the log.
+double probe_pcie_h2d_gbps(std::string* samples = nullptr) {
     constexpr size_t kBytes = 256ull << 20;
-    constexpr int kIters = 4;
+    constexpr int kBursts = 4;
     void* h = nullptr;
     void* d = nullptr;
-    cudaEvent_t ev0, ev1;
     if (cudaMallocHost(&h, kBytes) != cudaSuccess) return -1.0;
-    if (cudaMalloc(&d, kBytes) != cudaSuccess || cudaEventCreate(&ev0) != cudaSuccess ||
-        cudaEventCreate(&ev1) != cudaSuccess) {
-        if (d != nullptr) cudaFree(d);
+    if (cudaMalloc(&d, kBytes) != cudaSuccess) {
         cudaFreeHost(h);
         return -1.0;
     }
     std::memset(h, 0, kBytes);   // fault the pages in before timing
     cudaMemcpyAsync(d, h, kBytes, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice);   // warmup: context up, copy engine primed
-    cudaEventRecord(ev0);
-    for (int i = 0; i < kIters; ++i) cudaMemcpyAsync(d, h, kBytes, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice);
-    cudaEventRecord(ev1);
-    const bool ok = cudaEventSynchronize(ev1) == cudaSuccess;
-    float ms = 0.f;
-    const bool timed = ok && cudaEventElapsedTime(&ms, ev0, ev1) == cudaSuccess && ms > 0.01f;
-    const double bw = timed ? ((double) kIters * (double) kBytes / (ms * 1e-3)) / 1e9 : -1.0;
-    cudaEventDestroy(ev0);
-    cudaEventDestroy(ev1);
+    float ms[kBursts] = {};
+#if defined(STRATA_USE_HIP) && defined(_WIN32)
+    // Windows HIP: the events do not bracket the copies there (an RX 6800 read 3,300-26,000 GB/s, so every link kept
+    // the x16 share), so each burst is timed on the host between two synchronizes: 256 MiB takes ~10 ms, so the
+    // synchronize around it hardly matters
+    bool ok = cudaDeviceSynchronize() == cudaSuccess;
+    for (int b = 0; b < kBursts && ok; ++b) {
+        const Clock::time_point t0 = Clock::now();
+        cudaMemcpyAsync(d, h, kBytes, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice);
+        ok = cudaDeviceSynchronize() == cudaSuccess;
+        ms[b] = (float) std::chrono::duration<double, std::milli>(Clock::now() - t0).count();
+    }
+#else
+    // the bursts run back to back on the stream, an event between each two
+    cudaEvent_t ev[kBursts + 1];
+    int n_ev = 0;
+    while (n_ev <= kBursts && cudaEventCreate(&ev[n_ev]) == cudaSuccess) ++n_ev;
+    bool ok = n_ev == kBursts + 1;
+    if (ok) {
+        cudaEventRecord(ev[0]);
+        for (int b = 0; b < kBursts; ++b) {
+            cudaMemcpyAsync(d, h, kBytes, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice);
+            cudaEventRecord(ev[b + 1]);
+        }
+        ok = cudaEventSynchronize(ev[kBursts]) == cudaSuccess;
+        for (int b = 0; b < kBursts && ok; ++b) ok = cudaEventElapsedTime(&ms[b], ev[b], ev[b + 1]) == cudaSuccess;
+    }
+    for (int i = 0; i < n_ev; ++i) cudaEventDestroy(ev[i]);
+#endif
+    double bw = -1.0;
+    if (samples != nullptr) samples->clear();
+    for (int b = 0; b < kBursts && ok; ++b) {
+        const double s = ms[b] > 0.01f ? (double) kBytes / (ms[b] * 1e-3) / 1e9 : -1.0;
+        bw = std::max(bw, s);
+        if (samples != nullptr) {
+            char buf[32];
+            std::snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "%s%.1f", b == 0 ? "" : " ", s);
+            *samples += buf;
+        }
+    }
+    if (!ok) (void) cudaGetLastError();
     cudaFree(d);
     cudaFreeHost(h);
     return bw;
 }
 
+// The PCIe share of the missed experts for a link measured at `gbps`: `base` (the share measured on x16 links) from
+// 20 GB/s up, and below that in proportion to the bandwidth, so the time the link spends on its share stays about
+// what the x16 share costs.  Continuous (#485): before, 19.9 GB/s gave 0.42 and 20.0 the full 0.55 (and 4.0 GB/s
+// gave 0.08, 3.9 none), so a reading near either edge moved the share by a quarter of its range.  From 20 GB/s up
+// (an x16 PCIe 4/5 link: ~26-28 GB/s) the share is unchanged.
+double pcie_frac_for_gbps(double gbps, double base) {
+    return gbps <= 0.0 ? base : base * std::min(1.0, gbps / 20.0);
+}
+
 }  // namespace
 
 int main(int argc, char** argv) {
@@ -1210,6 +1265,9 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
         else if (a == "--expert-cache-per-layer") o.expert_cache_per_layer = true;
         else if (a == "--no-hit-poke") o.no_hit_poke = true;
         else if (a == "--expert-profile") o.expert_profile = next("--expert-profile");
+        else if (a == "--expert-profile-save") o.expert_profile_save = next("--expert-profile-save");
+        else if (a == "--expert-profile-save-every")
+            o.expert_profile_save_min = std::atof(next("--expert-profile-save-every"));
         else if (a == "--gpu-stages") o.gpu_stages = true;
         else if (a == "--mmap-experts") o.mmap_experts = true;
         else if (a == "--shared-expert-arena") o.shared_expert_arena = next("--shared-expert-arena");
@@ -1265,6 +1323,8 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
     // the next visible ones); "auto" places the K from each GPU's free VRAM once the weights are in (below).  Across
     // GPUs, not yet: KV streaming, images, control vectors, the helper caches (--expert-cache-remote), and lending
     // cache slots to the prompt path (each stage's prompt path has its own buffers).
+    // --pcie-frac given: that one share is every stage's (the stages' own link probes are skipped), so a split over
+    // a fast and a slow link cannot set the two apart from the command line (#485)
     const bool pcie_given = o.pcie_frac >= 0.0;
     std::vector<int64_t> split_at;
     std::vector<int> split_devs;
@@ -1720,15 +1780,14 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
     // pack's 0.2 was never measured against the link, so it is left alone.  `--calibrate` measures it outright.
     if (o.pcie_frac < 0.0) {
         const double base = native_pack ? 0.55 : 0.2;
-        const double bw = native_pack ? probe_pcie_h2d_gbps() : -1.0;
+        std::string bursts;
+        const double bw = native_pack ? probe_pcie_h2d_gbps(&bursts) : -1.0;
         if (!native_pack) {
             o.pcie_frac = base;
         } else if (bw > 0.0) {
-            // below ~4 GB/s (an x1 link: ~0.9 GB/s) a missed expert's 1.4 MB takes longer to cross than the CPU
-            // pool takes to compute it, so none of them go over the link
-            o.pcie_frac = bw >= 20.0 ? base : bw < 4.0 ? 0.0 : std::min(base, std::max(0.05, base * (bw / 26.0)));
-            std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: PCIe probe: %.1f GB/s host->device -> pcie_frac %.2f (default %.2f)\n",
-                         bw, o.pcie_frac, base);
+            o.pcie_frac = pcie_frac_for_gbps(bw, base);
+            std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: PCIe probe: %.1f GB/s host->device (best of %s) -> pcie_frac %.2f "
+                                 "(default %.2f)\n", bw, bursts.c_str(), o.pcie_frac, base);
         } else {
             o.pcie_frac = base;
             std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: PCIe probe failed -> pcie_frac default %.2f\n", base);
@@ -2229,13 +2288,15 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
             }
             strata::kernels::mrope_table_set(st.mrope);
         }
-        // its own PCIe share of the missed experts (the same rule as CUDA0's above: its link is probed)
+        // its own PCIe share of the missed experts (the same rule as CUDA0's above: its link is probed).  A given
+        // --pcie-frac is every stage's share and skips these probes (pcie_given); there is no per-stage setting yet.
         st.pcie_frac = o.pcie_frac;
         if (!pcie_given && native_pack) {
-            const double bw = probe_pcie_h2d_gbps();
-            if (bw > 0.0) st.pcie_frac = bw >= 20.0 ? 0.55 : bw < 4.0 ? 0.0 : std::min(0.55, std::max(0.05, 0.55 * (bw / 26.0)));
-            std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: layer split: CUDA%d PCIe probe %.1f GB/s -> pcie_frac %.2f\n", st.dev,
-                         bw, st.pcie_frac);
+            std::string bursts;
+            const double bw = probe_pcie_h2d_gbps(&bursts);
+            if (bw > 0.0) st.pcie_frac = pcie_frac_for_gbps(bw, 0.55);
+            std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: layer split: CUDA%d PCIe probe %.1f GB/s (best of %s) -> pcie_frac "
+                                 "%.2f\n", st.dev, bw, bursts.c_str(), st.pcie_frac);
         }
         size_t fb = 0, tb = 0;
         cudaMemGetInfo(&fb, &tb);
@@ -2258,6 +2319,10 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
         std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: profile %s: %zu ranked pairs, built for %lld slots\n",
                      o.expert_profile.c_str(), profile.size(), (long long) pslots);
     }
+    // #477: the whole ranking as loaded, the prior of --expert-profile-save's order (a layer split keeps only
+    // CUDA0's pairs in `profile` below).  Empty without --expert-profile-save.
+    std::vector<std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>> profile_loaded;
+    if (!o.expert_profile_save.empty()) profile_loaded = profile;
     // ---- layer split across GPUs: "auto" places the split points by a cost model of one decode window, measured on
     // the 5080 + 3090 rig (bench/results/2026-09-29-layer-split):
     //   - every layer costs its GPU a time inversely proportional to SMs x clock (0.33 ms on an RTX 5080, 0.50 on a
@@ -2553,6 +2618,14 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
         const char* name = named && p.name[0] ? p.name : "(an unnamed GPU)";
 #if defined(STRATA_USE_HIP)
         std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: GPU %d: %s (%s)\n", dev, name, named ? p.gcnArchName : "?");
+#if defined(_WIN32)
+        // #468 #461: which HIP runtime was loaded - the bundled one beside the exe, or an AMD driver's System32 copy
+        if (HMODULE h = GetModuleHandleA("amdhip64_7.dll")) {
+            char path[MAX_PATH] = {};
+            if (GetModuleFileNameA(h, path, MAX_PATH) > 0)
+                std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: HIP runtime %s\n", path);
+        }
+#endif
 #else
         std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: GPU %d: %s, compute capability %d.%d%s\n", dev, name,
                      strata::cc_major_of(p.major), strata::cc_minor_of(p.minor),
@@ -3689,7 +3762,7 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
     // and each generated token is written to stdout as `T <id>` as soon as its verify window is done, followed by
     //
     //     DONE <generated> <prompt_tokens> <prompt_ms> <decode_ms> <stop|length|cancel> <drafts accepted>
-    //          <drafts offered> <prompt tokens reused>
+    //          <drafts offered> <prompt tokens reused> ... <prompt tokens read>   (see the DONE line below; #471)
     //
     // Before that, `RESUME <n>` (n prompt tokens are not read again), `PP <position> <prompt_tokens> <ms> <tok/s>`
     // after every prompt chunk, and `REUSED <n>` once the prompt is read.  (`ERR <message>` instead when a request
@@ -3780,8 +3853,26 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
             const int64_t k = plan_lend(chunk);
             if (k > 0) lend_from = xcache.slots() - k;
         }
-        if (src.pin_cache_complement(xcache, err, o.resident_pin, {}, lend_from, o.resident_headroom,
-                                     o.resident_budget, &profile)) {
+        bool resident_ok = src.pin_cache_complement(xcache, err, o.resident_pin, {}, lend_from, o.resident_headroom,
+                                                    o.resident_budget, &profile);
+        std::string whole_err;
+        if (!resident_ok && o.resident_soft) {
+            // #467: the whole complement does not fit - keep what does, the hottest by the profile, through the #403
+            // budget path (sized by the RAM alone) instead of none: the misses outside it read the same file bytes
+            // the mmap fallback reads, so the answers are unchanged.  Nothing pinned: the old fallback below.
+            whole_err = err;
+            resident_ok = src.pin_cache_complement(xcache, err, o.resident_pin, {}, -1, o.resident_headroom,
+                                                   strata::core::FileExpertSource::kResidentWhatFits, &profile);
+            if (resident_ok)
+                std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: WARNING: the whole resident RAM mode does not fit (%s); %.2f "
+                                     "GiB of the experts the GPU does not hold, the hottest by the expert profile, are "
+                                     "kept in RAM and the rest are read from the model folder through the OS file "
+                                     "cache\n",
+                             whole_err.c_str(), (double) src.resident_bytes() / 1073741824.0);
+            else
+                err = whole_err + "; " + err;
+        }
+        if (resident_ok) {
             if (o.adapt_every > 0 && o.adapt_swaps > 0 &&
                 !src.reserve_exchanges(std::min<int64_t>(o.adapt_swaps, 96), err)) {
                 std::fprintf(stderr, "strata generate: CPU expert residency: %s\n", err.c_str());
@@ -3887,24 +3978,62 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
             // 128-slot floor.  The percentage cap is an AUTO-chunk rule and only the auto scan applies it - an
             // explicit --prefill is the operator's number, and a loan of it only has to fit.  With one participant
             // (no split) this reduces to plan_lend exactly, so the single-GPU loan is unchanged from main.
-            auto fits = [&](int64_t c, bool cap) -> bool {
-                for (const PfPart& p : pf_parts) {
-                    const int64_t k = part_slots(p, c);
-                    if (k <= 0 || k + 128 > p.cache->slots()) return false;
-                    if (cap && k * 100 > kAutoLendPct * p.cache->slots()) return false;
-                }
+            auto fits_one = [&](const PfPart& p, int64_t c, bool cap) -> bool {
+                const int64_t k = part_slots(p, c);
+                if (k <= 0 || k + 128 > p.cache->slots()) return false;
+                return !(cap && k * 100 > kAutoLendPct * p.cache->slots());
+            };
+            // `only`: CUDA0's cache alone (#448: what one GPU would choose, for the log below); null: every one
+            auto fits = [&](int64_t c, bool cap, const PfPart* only = nullptr) -> bool {
+                if (only != nullptr) return fits_one(*only, c, cap);
+                for (const PfPart& p : pf_parts)
+                    if (!fits_one(p, c, cap)) return false;
                 return true;
             };
             static constexpr int64_t kAutoChunks[] = {32768, 16384, 8192, 6144, 4096, 3072, 2048, 1024, 512, 256};
-            int64_t chunk = 0;
-            if (o.prefill_auto) {
-                for (const int64_t c : kAutoChunks) {
-                    if (c > 8192 && (c > o.prefill_auto_max || c > o.max_context)) continue;   // #282, as plan_lend
-                    if (fits(c, true)) { chunk = c; break; }
+            auto pick = [&](const PfPart* only) -> int64_t {
+                if (o.prefill_auto) {
+                    for (const int64_t c : kAutoChunks) {
+                        if (c > 8192 && (c > o.prefill_auto_max || c > o.max_context)) continue;   // #282, as plan_lend
+                        if (fits(c, true, only)) return c;
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    for (int64_t c = o.prefill_chunk; c >= 256; c /= 2)
+                        if (fits(c, false, only)) return c;
+                }
+                return 0;
+            };
+            const int64_t chunk = pick(nullptr);
+            // #448: a small card in a layer split caps every stage's chunk (an RTX 3080's 512-slot cache held a
+            // 32 GB card's split to 512 tokens: prompts 6.2x slower, decode the same).  Named when it bites, so the
+            // regression is one log line: each stage that cannot fund the chunk CUDA0 alone would read in.
+            if (pf_parts.size() > 1) {
+                const int64_t alone = pick(&pf_parts[0]);
+                if (alone > chunk) {
+                    for (size_t i = 1; i < pf_parts.size(); ++i) {
+                        const PfPart& p = pf_parts[i];
+                        if (fits_one(p, alone, o.prefill_auto)) continue;
+                        const int dev = p.dev < 0 ? 0 : p.dev;
+                        cudaDeviceProp prop{};
+                        if (cudaGetDeviceProperties(&prop, dev) != cudaSuccess) {
+                            (void) cudaGetLastError();
+                            prop.name[0] = 0;
+                        }
+                        const std::string pct =
+                            o.prefill_auto ? ", and lend at most " + std::to_string(kAutoLendPct) + "%" : "";
+                        std::fprintf(stderr, "strata serve: WARNING: prompt chunk %lld tokens, not %lld: CUDA%d (%s) "
+                                             "has %lld expert-cache slots, and a %lld-token chunk borrows %lld of them "
+                                             "(it must keep 128%s) - prompts read slower than on CUDA0 alone (#448)\n",
+                                     (long long) chunk, (long long) alone, dev, prop.name,
+                                     (long long) p.cache->slots(), (long long) alone,
+                                     (long long) part_slots(p, alone), pct.c_str());
+                        // the helper tiers start at CUDA1 without a split (and are enabled in order)
+                        std::fprintf(stderr, "strata serve:   a card this small can serve as a helper expert cache "
+                                             "instead of a split stage: without --layer-split, with %s "
+                                             "(docs/SECOND_GPU.md)\n",
+                                     dev == 1 ? "--expert-cache-device1 N" : "--expert-cache-device1..3 N, in order");
+                    }
                 }
-            } else {
-                for (int64_t c = o.prefill_chunk; c >= 256; c /= 2)
-                    if (fits(c, false)) { chunk = c; break; }
             }
             if (chunk > 0) {
                 if (o.prefill_auto)
@@ -4309,6 +4438,9 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
             return true;
         };
         int64_t pp_total = 0, pp_from = 0, pp_next_check = 0;
+        // #471: the position the prompt pass has read up to (a chunk's or a window's end): what a request cancelled
+        // mid-read reports as read, instead of the whole prompt
+        int64_t pp_reached = 0;
         Clock::time_point pp_t0 = Clock::now();
         auto imgs_below = [&](const std::vector<ImgKey>& all, int64_t L) {
             std::vector<ImgKey> v;
@@ -4372,6 +4504,7 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
                              batched ? "batched" : "token", mtp.kv_state().kv_mode, (long long) T);
             // progress for the server window: PP <position reached> <prompt tokens> <ms> <fresh tokens/s>
             const int64_t done = p0 + T;
+            pp_reached = done;
             const double ms = std::chrono::duration<double, std::milli>(Clock::now() - pp_t0).count();
             std::printf("PP %lld %lld %.0f %.1f\n", (long long) done, (long long) pp_total, ms,
                         ms > 0.0 ? 1000.0 * (double) (done - pp_from) / ms : 0.0);
@@ -4422,6 +4555,17 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
         drive.d.plan = ver.plan_sink();
         drive.d.pcie_num = std::max(0, std::min(256, (int) (o.pcie_frac * 256.0 + 0.5)));
         if (o.adapt_every > 0 && o.adapt_swaps > 0) drive.d.usage.assign((size_t) (g.n_layers * g.n_expert), 0.0f);
+        // #477 --expert-profile-save: what the adaptive tier learned, kept across restarts (opt-in; off: `heat` stays
+        // empty and nothing below runs).  It needs the adaptive tier's counts and the residency table.
+        std::vector<double> heat;
+        if (!o.expert_profile_save.empty()) {
+            if (drive.d.usage.empty() || host_res.empty())
+                std::fprintf(stderr, "strata serve: --expert-profile-save needs the adaptive tier (--adapt-every and "
+                                     "--adapt-swaps above 0) and --expert-profile: nothing will be saved\n");
+            else
+                heat.assign(drive.d.usage.size(), 0.0);
+        }
+        Clock::time_point profile_saved_at = Clock::now();
         cudaStream_t adapt_stream = nullptr;
         if (cudaStreamCreateWithFlags(&adapt_stream, cudaStreamNonBlocking) != cudaSuccess) {
             std::fprintf(stderr, "strata serve: cannot create the refill stream\n");
@@ -4508,9 +4652,29 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
                     const strata::core::OnDevice on(st->dev);
                     cudaEventRecord(st->adapt_ev, st->adapt_stream);
                 }
+            // #477: the routing counted since the start (each count adds up to 1 / (1 - 0.7) over its decays: the
+            // sum is proportional to the routing itself) - only with --expert-profile-save, else `heat` is empty
+            for (size_t i = 0; i < heat.size(); ++i) heat[i] += (double) drive.d.usage[i];
             for (float& v : drive.d.usage) v *= 0.7f;
             return true;
         };
+        // #477: write the learned profile (between requests and at QUIT: a prompt's lent slots are back by then).
+        // A swap still in flight counts as done - its expert is resident once the copy lands.  `why`: for the log.
+        auto save_profile = [&](const char* why) {
+            if (heat.empty()) return;
+            std::vector<uint8_t> resident(host_res.size(), 0);
+            for (size_t i = 0; i < host_res.size(); ++i) resident[i] = host_res[i] >= 0;
+            for (const auto& p : pending) resident[(size_t) p.first] = 1;
+            std::string e;
+            const auto ranked = strata::core::rank_learned_profile(g.n_layers, g.n_expert, resident, heat,
+                                                                   profile_loaded);
+            if (strata::core::write_expert_profile(o.expert_profile_save, g.n_layers, g.n_expert, ranked, e))
+                std::fprintf(stderr, "strata serve: expert profile saved to %s (%s)\n", o.expert_profile_save.c_str(),
+                             why);
+            else
+                std::fprintf(stderr, "strata serve: the expert profile was not saved: %s\n", e.c_str());
+            profile_saved_at = Clock::now();
+        };
         // stdin is read on its own thread, so a STOP line reaches a request that is still running (the client went
         // away, or pressed Esc): the flag is checked between prompt chunks and between verify windows.
         std::atomic<bool> stop_req{false};
@@ -4673,6 +4837,10 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
         std::vector<float> img_rows;
         std::vector<const float*> row_ptr;
         while (next_line(line)) {
+            // #477: every --expert-profile-save-every minutes, before the next request (at QUIT: after the loop)
+            if (!heat.empty() && line != "QUIT" && o.expert_profile_save_min > 0 &&
+                Clock::now() - profile_saved_at >= std::chrono::duration<double>(o.expert_profile_save_min * 60.0))
+                save_profile("periodic");
             if (line == "QUIT") break;
             // the watchdog watches a request from here until this iteration ends, whichever way it ends
             struct BusyScope {
@@ -4999,6 +5167,7 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
             conversations.limit_reuse(read_from);
             pp_total = n;
             pp_from = read_from;
+            pp_reached = read_from;
             pp_t0 = r0;
             pp_next_check = reread_to > 0 ? INT64_MAX : resume + o.prompt_cache_every;
             {
@@ -5064,6 +5233,7 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
                         return false;
                     if (!ver.commit(T, e) || !mtp.prefill(ver.final_R_all(), nxt.data(), T, q, e)) return false;
                     q += T;
+                    pp_reached = q;   // #471
                 }
                 // the batched prompt path (other streams), checkpoints and snapshots may follow: the last commit first
                 if (!ver.wait_commit(e)) return false;
@@ -5564,20 +5734,30 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
             }
             const int64_t req_hits = drive.d.cache_hits - decode_hits0;
             const int64_t req_look = (drive.d.cache_hits + drive.d.cache_admitted + drive.d.cache_refused) - decode_look0;
+            // #471: the prompt tokens this request read - all the fresh ones, or as far as the prompt pass got when a
+            // cancel stopped it part-way (a cancelled request used to be logged and counted as having read them all)
+            const int64_t fresh = n - resume;
+            const int64_t read_n = cancelled ? std::clamp<int64_t>(pp_reached - resume, 0, fresh) : fresh;
             // DONE <generated> <prompt> <prompt ms> <decode ms> <finish> <drafts accepted> <drafts offered> <reused> [hits] [lookups]
             //      [RAM blobs] [file blobs] [file MB]   (CS-T tiers; appended, so an older server reads the rest)
-            std::printf("DONE %lld %lld %.1f %.1f %s %lld %lld %lld %lld %lld %lld %lld %.1f\n", (long long) produced_n,
+            //      [prompt tokens read]   (#471: fewer than <prompt> - <reused> when a cancel stopped the read)
+            std::printf("DONE %lld %lld %.1f %.1f %s %lld %lld %lld %lld %lld %lld %lld %.1f %lld\n", (long long) produced_n,
                         (long long) n, prompt_ms, decode_ms, finish, (long long) draft_accepted, (long long) draft_offered,
                         (long long) resume, (long long) req_hits, (long long) req_look,
                         (long long) (src.ram_reads() - ram0), (long long) (src.file_reads() - files0),
-                        (double) (src.file_read_bytes() - file_bytes0) / 1e6);
+                        (double) (src.file_read_bytes() - file_bytes0) / 1e6, (long long) read_n);
             std::fflush(stdout);
             if (drive.routing != nullptr) std::fflush(drive.routing);   // the routing trace survives a crash and is watchable mid-session
-            const int64_t fresh = n - resume;
-            std::fprintf(stderr, "strata serve: prompt %lld tokens = %lld reused + %lld read in %.0f ms (%.1f tok/s), "
+            // "12288 of 98179" when cancelled mid-read (#471), the rate from what was read
+            char read_txt[64];
+            if (cancelled)
+                std::snprintf(read_txt, sizeof(read_txt), "%lld of %lld", (long long) read_n, (long long) fresh);
+            else
+                std::snprintf(read_txt, sizeof(read_txt), "%lld", (long long) fresh);
+            std::fprintf(stderr, "strata serve: prompt %lld tokens = %lld reused + %s read in %.0f ms (%.1f tok/s), "
                                  "%lld generated in %.0f ms (%.1f tok/s), drafts accepted %lld of %lld, %zu checkpoints%s\n",
-                         (long long) n, (long long) resume, (long long) fresh, prompt_ms,
-                         prompt_ms > 0 ? 1000.0 * fresh / prompt_ms : 0.0, (long long) produced_n, decode_ms,
+                         (long long) n, (long long) resume, read_txt, prompt_ms,
+                         prompt_ms > 0 ? 1000.0 * read_n / prompt_ms : 0.0, (long long) produced_n, decode_ms,
                          decode_ms > 0 ? 1000.0 * produced_n / decode_ms : 0.0, (long long) draft_accepted,
                          (long long) draft_offered, checks.size(), cancelled ? " (cancelled)" : "");
             // the VRAM share of the experts the pool looked up while decoding; experts it sent over PCIe for the GPU
@@ -5639,6 +5819,7 @@ int main(int argc, char** argv) {
                              remote_experts[(size_t) r].ms_begin() - begin_before[(size_t) r],
                              remote_experts[(size_t) r].ms_wait() - wait_before[(size_t) r]);
         }
+        save_profile("exit");   // #477: QUIT, or the server closed stdin
         return 0;
     }
 

tests/core/expert_profile_save_test.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+// #477: --expert-profile-save's profile - rank_learned_profile's order (resident first, then the counted routing, then
+// the profile the engine started from) and write_expert_profile's file, byte for byte tools/make_profile.py's format,
+// read back by read_expert_profile.  CPU only: no device is touched.
+#include "strata/core/expert_cache.hpp"
+
+#include <cstdio>
+#include <cstring>
+#include <filesystem>
+#include <string>
+#include <utility>
+#include <vector>
+
+namespace {
+int fails = 0;
+void check(bool ok, const char* what) {
+    if (!ok) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "FAIL: %s\n", what);
+        ++fails;
+    }
+}
+}  // namespace
+
+int main() {
+    using Pair = std::pair<int32_t, int32_t>;
+    const int64_t L = 3, E = 4;   // 12 pairs, index = layer * 4 + expert
+    std::vector<uint8_t> resident(12, 0);
+    resident[5] = 1;              // (1, 1)
+    resident[2] = 1;              // (0, 2)
+    std::vector<double> heat(12, 0.0);
+    heat[2] = 1.0;
+    heat[5] = 7.0;
+    heat[11] = 9.0;               // (2, 3): the hottest, but not resident
+    heat[0] = 3.0;
+    const std::vector<Pair> prior = {{2, 0}, {1, 3}, {0, 1}};   // a profile that ranks three pairs
+    const std::vector<Pair> r = strata::core::rank_learned_profile(L, E, resident, heat, prior);
+    check(r.size() == 12, "every pair is ranked");
+    const std::vector<Pair> head = {{1, 1}, {0, 2}, {2, 3}, {0, 0}, {2, 0}, {1, 3}, {0, 1}, {0, 3}};
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < head.size() && i < r.size(); ++i)
+        check(r[i] == head[i], "resident by heat, then the rest by heat, then the prior, then the index");
+    // no counts at all: the resident ones, then the prior's order
+    const std::vector<Pair> r0 = strata::core::rank_learned_profile(L, E, resident, {}, prior);
+    check(r0.size() == 12 && r0[0] == Pair(0, 2) && r0[1] == Pair(1, 1) && r0[2] == Pair(2, 0) &&
+          r0[3] == Pair(1, 3) && r0[4] == Pair(0, 1) && r0[5] == Pair(0, 0), "without heat: resident, then prior");
+
+    const std::filesystem::path dir = std::filesystem::temp_directory_path() / "strata_profile_save_test";
+    std::filesystem::create_directories(dir);
+    const std::string path = (dir / "learned.bin").string();
+    std::string err;
+    check(strata::core::write_expert_profile(path, L, E, r, err), "written");
+    check(!std::filesystem::exists(path + ".tmp"), "no temporary file left");
+    // the bytes make_profile.write_profile would write for the same ranking
+    std::vector<uint8_t> want(4);
+    std::memcpy(want.data(), "STRP", 4);
+    auto u32 = [&](uint32_t v) { for (int b = 0; b < 4; ++b) want.push_back((uint8_t) (v >> (8 * b))); };
+    auto u16 = [&](uint32_t v) { want.push_back((uint8_t) v); want.push_back((uint8_t) (v >> 8)); };
+    for (uint32_t v : {1u, 3u, 4u, 12u, 12u}) u32(v);
+    for (const Pair& p : r) { u16((uint32_t) p.first); u16((uint32_t) p.second); }
+    std::vector<int32_t> table(12, -1);
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < r.size(); ++i) table[(size_t) (r[i].first * E + r[i].second)] = (int32_t) i;
+    for (int32_t v : table) u32((uint32_t) v);
+    std::vector<uint8_t> got(want.size() + 1);
+    if (std::FILE* f = std::fopen(path.c_str(), "rb")) {
+        got.resize(std::fread(got.data(), 1, got.size(), f));
+        std::fclose(f);
+    }
+    check(got == want, "the file is make_profile.py's format, byte for byte");
+    std::vector<Pair> back;
+    int64_t slots = 0;
+    check(strata::core::read_expert_profile(path, L, E, back, slots, err) && back == r && slots == 12,
+          "read back by the loader");
+    // a second save replaces the first (the rename over an existing file)
+    check(strata::core::write_expert_profile(path, L, E, r0, err), "written again");
+    check(strata::core::read_expert_profile(path, L, E, back, slots, err) && back == r0, "replaced");
+    check(!strata::core::write_expert_profile(path, L, E, {{3, 0}}, err), "a pair out of range is refused");
+    check(strata::core::read_expert_profile(path, L, E, back, slots, err) && back == r0,
+          "a refused save keeps the file");
+    std::filesystem::remove_all(dir);
+    if (fails == 0) std::puts("expert_profile_save_test: OK");
+    return fails == 0 ? 0 : 1;
+}

tests/cuda/prefill_fused_iq_test.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,633 @@
+// prefill_fused_iq_test - #136: the fused int8 expert kernels for the native packs (moe_fused_iq.hpp, STRATA_PF_FUSED=1)
+// on random native expert blobs ([gate rows | up rows | down rows], GGUF blocks) and random routing, per format pair,
+// against
+//   - a double-precision reference: the weights dequantized by ggml's own to_float, times the FP32 activations
+//     (gate/up, SwiGLU, down), and
+//   - the MMQ path in prefill.cpp's sequence (gather_native into 16-expert groups, q8_1 of the slots' activations,
+//     gate/up, SwiGLU, q8_1 of H, down).
+// Both round the activations and H to int8 per 32 values, differently, so this is not a bitwise test: the fused
+// path's error against the reference has to be comparable to MMQ's own (at most 1.5x its RMS and 2x its worst row).
+// The pairs cover every format the kernels take: gate/up IQ2_XXS IQ2_XS IQ2_S IQ3_XXS IQ3_S IQ4_XS, down Q2_0 IQ4_NL.
+// Part 1 (reference), per pair: 256 tokens over 64 experts, skewed routing - experts with 0 rows, with one, with
+// several 64-row tiles - an all-zero token, per-expert blobs at unrelated (2-byte aligned) addresses, three launches of
+// different expert ranges.  Part 2 (timing): one layer at the engine's chunks (2048, 3584, 8192 tokens; 512 experts,
+// top 10) on both paths and on MMQ's products alone (no gathers), for the IQ2_XS, IQ3_XXS and IQ3_S packs' most
+// common layers, with the grouping checked and a sample of rows against the reference.  --no-ref, --no-timing,
+// --only=NAME, --chunks=A,B.  Exit 77 without a CUDA device of sm_80 or newer.
+#include "strata/prefill/moe_fused_iq.hpp"
+#include "strata/prefill/moe_mmq.hpp"
+
+#include "ggml.h"
+
+#include <cuda_runtime.h>
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <cmath>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <cstdio>
+#include <cstdlib>
+#include <cstring>
+#include <memory>
+#include <random>
+#include <stdexcept>
+#include <string>
+#include <thread>
+#include <vector>
+
+namespace {
+namespace mmq = strata::prefill::mmq;
+namespace fused = strata::prefill::fused;
+
+constexpr int N = 2560, FF = 640, K = 10, GROUP = 16;
+
+void ck(cudaError_t e, const char* what) {
+    if (e != cudaSuccess) throw std::runtime_error(std::string(what) + ": " + cudaGetErrorString(e));
+}
+
+struct Dev {
+    void* p = nullptr;
+    explicit Dev(size_t n) { ck(cudaMalloc(&p, n), "cudaMalloc"); }
+    ~Dev() { cudaFree(p); }
+    Dev(const Dev&) = delete;
+    Dev& operator=(const Dev&) = delete;
+    template <typename T> T* as() const { return (T*) p; }
+};
+
+struct Pair {
+    ggml_type gu, d;
+    const char* name;
+};
+
+struct Geo {
+    size_t gu_row, d_row, up_off, down_off, bytes;
+    explicit Geo(const Pair& p) {
+        gu_row = ggml_row_size(p.gu, N);
+        d_row = ggml_row_size(p.d, FF);
+        up_off = gu_row * FF;
+        down_off = 2 * up_off;
+        bytes = down_off + d_row * N;
+    }
+    fused::NativeGeom native(const Pair& p) const {
+        fused::NativeGeom g;
+        g.gu_type = (int) p.gu; g.d_type = (int) p.d; g.gu_row = gu_row; g.d_row = d_row; g.up_off = up_off;
+        g.down_off = down_off;
+        return g;
+    }
+};
+
+// random blocks with a sane fp16 scale `d` at each block's start (every format here begins with it): scales chosen so
+// that the weights' typical size is that of a 2-3 bit expert (a few hundredths)
+void fill_matrix(uint8_t* m, ggml_type t, int64_t rows, int64_t cols, std::mt19937& rng) {
+    const size_t bs = ggml_type_size(t), nb = (size_t) rows * (size_t) (cols / ggml_blck_size(t));
+    std::uniform_int_distribution<int> byte(0, 255);
+    const float lo = t == GGML_TYPE_IQ3_S ? 0.0004f : t == GGML_TYPE_IQ4_XS ? 0.00005f
+                   : t == GGML_TYPE_IQ4_NL ? 0.0002f : t == GGML_TYPE_Q2_0 ? 0.004f : 0.0008f;
+    std::uniform_real_distribution<float> sc(lo, 6.0f * lo);
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < nb * bs; ++i) m[i] = (uint8_t) byte(rng);
+    for (size_t b = 0; b < nb; ++b) {
+        const ggml_fp16_t h = ggml_fp32_to_fp16(sc(rng));
+        std::memcpy(m + b * bs, &h, 2);
+    }
+}
+std::vector<uint8_t> make_blob(const Pair& p, const Geo& g, std::mt19937& rng) {
+    std::vector<uint8_t> b(g.bytes);
+    fill_matrix(b.data(), p.gu, 2 * FF, N, rng);
+    fill_matrix(b.data() + g.down_off, p.d, N, FF, rng);
+    return b;
+}
+
+// ggml's dequantized weights: gate [640][2560], up [640][2560], down [2560][640]
+void dequant(const Pair& p, const Geo& g, const std::vector<uint8_t>& b, std::vector<float>& gu, std::vector<float>& dn) {
+    const auto* tg = ggml_get_type_traits(p.gu);
+    const auto* td = ggml_get_type_traits(p.d);
+    gu.resize((size_t) 2 * FF * N);
+    dn.resize((size_t) N * FF);
+    for (int r = 0; r < 2 * FF; ++r) tg->to_float(b.data() + (size_t) r * g.gu_row, gu.data() + (size_t) r * N, N);
+    for (int r = 0; r < N; ++r) td->to_float(b.data() + g.down_off + (size_t) r * g.d_row, dn.data() + (size_t) r * FF, FF);
+}
+
+// activations: N(0, 1) with a few large values (the hidden state has outliers); token `zero` all zero
+std::vector<float> make_x(int T, std::mt19937& rng, int zero) {
+    std::vector<float> x((size_t) T * N);
+    std::normal_distribution<float> nd(0.0f, 1.0f);
+    std::uniform_int_distribution<int> pick(0, 199);
+    for (float& v : x) v = nd(rng) * (pick(rng) == 0 ? 12.0f : 1.0f);
+    if (zero >= 0) std::fill(x.begin() + (size_t) zero * N, x.begin() + (size_t) (zero + 1) * N, 0.0f);
+    return x;
+}
+
+// K distinct experts per token; `hot` > 0 skews the first choices towards the lowest ids
+std::vector<int32_t> make_ids(int T, int E, std::mt19937& rng, int hot, int unused) {
+    std::vector<int32_t> ids((size_t) T * K);
+    std::uniform_int_distribution<int> any(0, E - 1 - unused);
+    for (int t = 0; t < T; ++t)
+        for (int k = 0; k < K; ++k) {
+            int e;
+            bool dup;
+            do {
+                e = (hot > 0 && k < 3 && (int) (rng() % 4) != 0) ? (int) (rng() % (unsigned) hot) : any(rng);
+                dup = false;
+                for (int j = 0; j < k; ++j) dup |= ids[(size_t) t * K + j] == e;
+            } while (dup);
+            ids[(size_t) t * K + k] = e;
+        }
+    return ids;
+}
+
+struct Routing {
+    std::vector<int32_t> cnt, off, src;   // per expert; sorted row -> token (rows in pair order within an expert)
+    std::vector<int32_t> row_of;          // pair -> sorted row
+};
+Routing sort_rows(const std::vector<int32_t>& ids, int E) {
+    Routing r;
+    r.cnt.assign((size_t) E, 0);
+    for (int32_t e : ids) ++r.cnt[(size_t) e];
+    r.off.assign((size_t) E + 1, 0);
+    for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) r.off[(size_t) e + 1] = r.off[(size_t) e] + r.cnt[(size_t) e];
+    std::vector<int32_t> fill(r.off.begin(), r.off.end() - 1);
+    r.src.resize(ids.size());
+    r.row_of.resize(ids.size());
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < ids.size(); ++i) {
+        const int32_t p = fill[(size_t) ids[i]]++;
+        r.row_of[i] = p;
+        r.src[(size_t) p] = (int32_t) (i / K);
+    }
+    return r;
+}
+
+// MMQ, as prefill.cpp runs a native layer: per group of 16 routed experts a gather, gate/up, SwiGLU (gate rows, then
+// up rows), q8_1 of H, down.  Returns Dm [rows][N] in sorted-row order.
+struct MmqBufs {
+    Dev xq, gu, h, hq, dm, ident, bounds, grp_gu, grp_d;
+    MmqBufs(const Pair& p, int64_t rows, int E)
+        : xq(mmq::q8_bytes(rows, N)), gu((size_t) rows * 1280 * 4), h((size_t) rows * FF * 4),
+          hq(mmq::q8_bytes(rows, FF)), dm((size_t) rows * N * 4), ident((size_t) rows * 4),
+          bounds((size_t) (2 * (E + E / GROUP + 2)) * 4), grp_gu(GROUP * mmq::matrix_bytes(p.gu, 1280, N) + 4096),
+          grp_d(GROUP * mmq::matrix_bytes(p.d, N, FF) + 4096) {}
+};
+// `direct`: no gathers - the products read the blobs where they are (they must lie at a fixed stride, every expert
+// with rows: the timing part's layout), the cost of MMQ's own kernels alone
+void run_mmq(const Pair& p, const Geo& geo, mmq::Context& ctx, MmqBufs& b, const Routing& r, const float* x_dev,
+             const int32_t* src_dev, const std::vector<const uint8_t*>& blob, int64_t rows, cudaStream_t s,
+             bool direct = false, size_t stride = 0) {
+    const size_t gub = mmq::matrix_bytes(p.gu, 1280, N), db = mmq::matrix_bytes(p.d, N, FF);
+    const int E = (int) r.cnt.size();
+    std::vector<int32_t> order;
+    for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) if (r.cnt[(size_t) e] > 0) order.push_back(e);
+    const size_t n = order.size(), ng = (n + GROUP - 1) / GROUP;
+    std::vector<int32_t> bh(n + 1 + ng * (GROUP + 1));
+    for (size_t j = 0; j < n; ++j) bh[j] = r.off[(size_t) order[j]];
+    bh[n] = (int32_t) rows;
+    for (size_t g = 0; g < ng; ++g)
+        for (size_t i = 0; i <= GROUP; ++i)
+            bh[n + 1 + g * (GROUP + 1) + i] = bh[std::min(n, g * GROUP + i)] - bh[g * GROUP];
+    ck(cudaMemcpyAsync(b.bounds.p, bh.data(), bh.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, s), "bounds");
+    mmq::iota(b.ident.as<int32_t>(), rows, s);
+    mmq::quantize(x_dev, src_dev, b.xq.p, (int) p.gu, N, N, rows, s);
+    for (size_t j = 0; j < n; ++j) {
+        const size_t q = j % GROUP;
+        const uint8_t* bl = blob[(size_t) order[j]];
+        if (!direct)
+            mmq::gather_native(bl, bl + geo.up_off, gub / 2, bl + geo.down_off, db, b.grp_gu.as<uint8_t>() + q * gub,
+                               b.grp_d.as<uint8_t>() + q * db, s);
+        if (q + 1 < GROUP && j + 1 < n) continue;
+        const size_t j0 = j - q, g = j0 / GROUP;
+        const int ngx = (int) (q + 1);
+        const int64_t r0 = bh[j0], nr = bh[j + 1] - r0;
+        int64_t maxr = 0;
+        for (size_t i = j0; i <= j; ++i) maxr = std::max<int64_t>(maxr, r.cnt[(size_t) order[i]]);
+        if (!direct) {
+            ck(cudaMemsetAsync(b.grp_gu.as<uint8_t>() + (size_t) ngx * gub, 0, 4096, s), "tail");
+            ck(cudaMemsetAsync(b.grp_d.as<uint8_t>() + (size_t) ngx * db, 0, 4096, s), "tail");
+        }
+        const uint8_t* b0 = blob[(size_t) order[j0]];
+        mmq::Product gu;
+        gu.w = direct ? (const void*) b0 : b.grp_gu.p; gu.type = (int) p.gu; gu.w_rows = 1280; gu.w_cols = N;
+        gu.expert_bytes = direct ? stride : gub;
+        gu.n = ngx; gu.xq = b.xq.p; gu.bounds = b.bounds.as<int32_t>() + j0; gu.ids = b.ident.as<int32_t>();
+        gu.total_rows = rows; gu.max_rows = maxr; gu.dst = b.gu.as<float>(); gu.ld_dst = 1280;
+        ctx.run(gu, s);
+        mmq::swiglu(b.gu.as<float>() + r0 * 1280, b.h.as<float>() + r0 * FF, nr, FF, false, s);
+        mmq::quantize(b.h.as<float>() + r0 * FF, nullptr, b.hq.p, (int) p.d, FF, FF, nr, s);
+        mmq::Product dn;
+        dn.w = direct ? (const void*) (b0 + geo.down_off) : b.grp_d.p; dn.type = (int) p.d; dn.w_rows = N; dn.w_cols = FF;
+        dn.expert_bytes = direct ? stride : db;
+        dn.n = ngx; dn.xq = b.hq.p; dn.bounds = b.bounds.as<int32_t>() + n + 1 + g * (GROUP + 1);
+        dn.ids = b.ident.as<int32_t>(); dn.total_rows = nr; dn.max_rows = maxr; dn.dst = b.dm.as<float>() + r0 * N;
+        dn.ld_dst = N;
+        ctx.run(dn, s);
+    }
+}
+
+// the fused path: quantize, group on the device, then launches over expert ranges `cuts` (e.g. {0, 20, 64})
+struct FusedBufs {
+    Dev xa, ha, dm, scratch, slot, src, ids;
+    FusedBufs(int T, int64_t rows, int E)
+        : xa(fused::act_bytes(T, N)), ha(fused::act_bytes(rows, FF)), dm((size_t) rows * N * 4),
+          scratch(fused::group_bytes(rows, E)), slot((size_t) rows * 4), src((size_t) rows * 4),
+          ids((size_t) rows * 4) {}
+};
+void run_fused(const Pair& p, const Geo& geo, FusedBufs& b, const float* x_dev, int T, int E,
+               const std::vector<int>& cuts, const std::vector<const uint8_t*>& blob, cudaStream_t s) {
+    const int64_t rows = (int64_t) T * K;
+    const fused::NativeGeom ng = geo.native(p);
+    fused::quantize_act_native(x_dev, T, N, b.xa.p, s);
+    fused::group(b.ids.as<int32_t>(), rows, K, E, b.scratch.p, b.slot.as<int32_t>(), b.src.as<int32_t>(), s);
+    for (size_t c = 0; c + 1 < cuts.size(); ++c) {
+        for (int e0 = cuts[c]; e0 < cuts[c + 1]; e0 += fused::kMaxBatch) {
+            fused::Batch bt;
+            bt.e0 = e0;
+            bt.e1 = std::min(cuts[c + 1], e0 + fused::kMaxBatch);
+            for (int e = bt.e0; e < bt.e1; ++e) bt.blob[e - bt.e0] = blob[(size_t) e];
+            fused::experts_native(bt, ng, E, rows, b.scratch.p, b.xa.p, b.src.as<int32_t>(), b.ha.p, b.dm.as<float>(), s);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct Err {
+    double rms = 0, worst = 0;   // RMS error / RMS of the reference; the worst row's max |error| / its max |ref|
+};
+// y_a[row_a(i)] against y_b[row_b(i)] for every pair i (rows of N values)
+template <typename RA, typename RB>
+Err compare(const std::vector<float>& a, RA row_a, const std::vector<float>& b, RB row_b, size_t pairs) {
+    double e2 = 0, r2 = 0;
+    Err out;
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < pairs; ++i) {
+        const float* ya = a.data() + (size_t) row_a(i) * N;
+        const float* yb = b.data() + (size_t) row_b(i) * N;
+        double me = 0, mr = 0;
+        for (int o = 0; o < N; ++o) {
+            if (!std::isfinite(ya[o])) throw std::runtime_error("a non-finite output");
+            const double d = (double) ya[o] - yb[o];
+            e2 += d * d;
+            r2 += (double) yb[o] * yb[o];
+            me = std::max(me, std::fabs(d));
+            mr = std::max(mr, (double) std::fabs(yb[o]));
+        }
+        if (mr > 0) out.worst = std::max(out.worst, me / mr);
+        else if (me > 0) out.worst = 1e30;   // a zero row must stay exactly zero
+    }
+    out.rms = r2 > 0 ? std::sqrt(e2 / r2) : 0;
+    return out;
+}
+
+std::vector<float> download(const Dev& d, size_t n) {
+    std::vector<float> h(n);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(h.data(), d.p, n * 4, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost), "download");
+    return h;
+}
+std::vector<int32_t> download_i(const Dev& d, size_t n) {
+    std::vector<int32_t> h(n);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(h.data(), d.p, n * 4, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost), "download");
+    return h;
+}
+
+// part 1: against the double-precision reference
+void reference_part(const Pair& p, cudaStream_t s) {
+    constexpr int T = 256, E = 64, ZERO = 77;
+    const Geo geo(p);
+    std::mt19937 rng(136 + (unsigned) p.gu * 7 + (unsigned) p.d);
+    std::vector<std::vector<uint8_t>> host((size_t) E);
+    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Dev>> dev;
+    std::vector<const uint8_t*> blob((size_t) E);
+    for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) {
+        host[(size_t) e] = make_blob(p, geo, rng);
+        dev.push_back(std::make_unique<Dev>(geo.bytes + 4096 * (size_t) (e % 3) + 64));   // unrelated addresses
+        uint8_t* q = dev.back()->as<uint8_t>() + 256 * (size_t) (e % 3) + 2 * (size_t) (e % 2);   // 2-byte aligned
+        ck(cudaMemcpy(q, host[(size_t) e].data(), geo.bytes, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "blob");
+        blob[(size_t) e] = q;
+    }
+    const std::vector<float> x = make_x(T, rng, ZERO);
+    const std::vector<int32_t> ids = make_ids(T, E, rng, 2, 4);   // experts 0, 1 hot (several tiles), 60-63 unused
+    const int64_t rows = (int64_t) T * K;
+    const Routing r = sort_rows(ids, E);
+    std::printf("%s - reference part: %d tokens, %d experts, rows per expert: max %d, experts without rows %d\n", p.name,
+                T, E, *std::max_element(r.cnt.begin(), r.cnt.end()), (int) std::count(r.cnt.begin(), r.cnt.end(), 0));
+
+    Dev x_dev(x.size() * 4), src_dev((size_t) rows * 4);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(x_dev.p, x.data(), x.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "x");
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(src_dev.p, r.src.data(), r.src.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "src");
+    // (the uploads above are on the legacy stream and the work below on a non-blocking one: a cudaMemcpy from pageable
+    // memory may return before its DMA lands - on Windows it can wait in the queue until the next synchronous call)
+    ck(cudaDeviceSynchronize(), "uploads");
+    mmq::Context ctx;
+    MmqBufs mb(p, rows, E);
+    run_mmq(p, geo, ctx, mb, r, x_dev.as<float>(), src_dev.as<int32_t>(), blob, rows, s);
+    FusedBufs fb(T, rows, E);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(fb.ids.p, ids.data(), ids.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "ids");
+    ck(cudaMemset(fb.dm.p, 0xff, (size_t) rows * N * 4), "sentinel");   // an unwritten row is NaN
+    ck(cudaDeviceSynchronize(), "uploads");
+    run_fused(p, geo, fb, x_dev.as<float>(), T, E, {0, 1, 20, E}, blob, s);
+    ck(cudaStreamSynchronize(s), "sync");
+    const std::vector<float> y_mmq = download(mb.dm, (size_t) rows * N), y_f = download(fb.dm, (size_t) rows * N);
+    const std::vector<int32_t> slot = download_i(fb.slot, (size_t) rows), fsrc = download_i(fb.src, (size_t) rows);
+    for (int64_t i = 0; i < rows; ++i)
+        if (fsrc[(size_t) slot[(size_t) i]] != (int32_t) (i / K)) throw std::runtime_error("group: slot/src disagree");
+
+    // the reference, an expert at a time on all cores
+    std::vector<float> ref((size_t) rows * N);
+    std::vector<std::thread> th;
+    const int nth = std::max(1, std::min(16, (int) std::thread::hardware_concurrency()));
+    for (int w = 0; w < nth; ++w)
+        th.emplace_back([&, w] {
+            std::vector<float> gu, dn, h(FF);
+            for (int e = w; e < E; e += nth) {
+                if (r.cnt[(size_t) e] == 0) continue;
+                dequant(p, geo, host[(size_t) e], gu, dn);
+                for (int64_t i = 0; i < rows; ++i) {
+                    if (ids[(size_t) i] != e) continue;
+                    const float* xr = x.data() + (size_t) (i / K) * N;
+                    for (int f = 0; f < FF; ++f) {
+                        double gt = 0, up = 0;
+                        const float *wg = gu.data() + (size_t) f * N, *wu = gu.data() + (size_t) (FF + f) * N;
+                        for (int k = 0; k < N; ++k) { gt += (double) wg[k] * xr[k]; up += (double) wu[k] * xr[k]; }
+                        h[(size_t) f] = (float) (gt / (1.0 + std::exp(-gt)) * up);
+                    }
+                    for (int o = 0; o < N; ++o) {
+                        double a = 0;
+                        const float* wd = dn.data() + (size_t) o * FF;
+                        for (int f = 0; f < FF; ++f) a += (double) wd[f] * h[(size_t) f];
+                        ref[(size_t) i * N + o] = (float) a;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        });
+    for (auto& t : th) t.join();
+
+    auto pair = [](size_t i) { return (int64_t) i; };
+    auto mrow = [&](size_t i) { return (int64_t) r.row_of[i]; };
+    auto frow = [&](size_t i) { return (int64_t) slot[i]; };
+    const Err em = compare(y_mmq, mrow, ref, pair, (size_t) rows);
+    const Err ef = compare(y_f, frow, ref, pair, (size_t) rows);
+    const Err efm = compare(y_f, frow, y_mmq, mrow, (size_t) rows);
+    std::printf("  MMQ   vs FP32 reference: rel RMS %.3e  worst row max rel %.3e\n", em.rms, em.worst);
+    std::printf("  fused vs FP32 reference: rel RMS %.3e  worst row max rel %.3e\n", ef.rms, ef.worst);
+    std::printf("  fused vs MMQ           : rel RMS %.3e  worst row max rel %.3e\n", efm.rms, efm.worst);
+    double zmax = 0;
+    for (int k = 0; k < K; ++k)
+        for (int o = 0; o < N; ++o)
+            zmax = std::max(zmax, (double) std::fabs(y_f[(size_t) slot[(size_t) (ZERO * K + k)] * N + o]));
+    if (zmax != 0) throw std::runtime_error(std::string(p.name) + ": the all-zero token's outputs are not zero");
+    if (ef.rms > 1.5 * em.rms || ef.worst > 2.0 * em.worst)
+        throw std::runtime_error(std::string(p.name) + ": the fused path's error is not comparable to MMQ's");
+}
+
+// part 2: one layer at a real chunk, timed
+void timing_part(const Pair& p, int T, cudaStream_t s) {
+    constexpr int E = 512;
+    const Geo geo(p);
+    std::mt19937 rng(1360);
+    const int64_t rows = (int64_t) T * K;
+    // 512 distinct blobs - the products read each once per tile, as the engine does
+    // at a stride of whole blocks of both formats (MMQ's expert stride counts blocks), + MMQ's read past the end
+    size_t unit = ggml_type_size(p.gu);
+    while (unit % ggml_type_size(p.d) != 0 || unit % 16 != 0) unit += ggml_type_size(p.gu);
+    const size_t stride = (geo.bytes + unit - 1) / unit * unit;
+    Dev blobs((size_t) E * stride + 4096);
+    ck(cudaMemset(blobs.p, 0, (size_t) E * stride + 4096), "zero");
+    {
+        std::vector<uint8_t> b = make_blob(p, geo, rng);
+        for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) {
+            b[4 + (size_t) (e % 16)] ^= (uint8_t) e;   // not all equal (inside the first block, not its scale)
+            ck(cudaMemcpy(blobs.as<uint8_t>() + (size_t) e * stride, b.data(), geo.bytes, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice),
+               "blob");
+        }
+    }
+    std::vector<const uint8_t*> blob((size_t) E);
+    for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) blob[(size_t) e] = blobs.as<uint8_t>() + (size_t) e * stride;
+    const std::vector<float> x = make_x(T, rng, -1);
+    const std::vector<int32_t> ids = make_ids(T, E, rng, 0, 0);
+    const Routing r = sort_rows(ids, E);
+    Dev x_dev(x.size() * 4), src_dev((size_t) rows * 4);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(x_dev.p, x.data(), x.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "x");
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(src_dev.p, r.src.data(), r.src.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "src");
+    mmq::Context ctx;
+    MmqBufs mb(p, rows, E);
+    FusedBufs fb(T, rows, E);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(fb.ids.p, ids.data(), ids.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "ids");
+    ck(cudaDeviceSynchronize(), "uploads");   // (see reference_part)
+    cudaEvent_t a, b;
+    ck(cudaEventCreate(&a), "event");
+    ck(cudaEventCreate(&b), "event");
+    auto once = [&](auto&& f) {
+        ck(cudaEventRecord(a, s), "record");
+        f();
+        ck(cudaEventRecord(b, s), "record");
+        ck(cudaEventSynchronize(b), "sync");
+        float t = 0;
+        ck(cudaEventElapsedTime(&t, a, b), "elapsed");
+        return t;
+    };
+    auto mmq_run = [&] { run_mmq(p, geo, ctx, mb, r, x_dev.as<float>(), src_dev.as<int32_t>(), blob, rows, s); };
+    auto fused_run = [&] { run_fused(p, geo, fb, x_dev.as<float>(), T, E, {0, E}, blob, s); };
+    const bool all_routed = std::count(r.cnt.begin(), r.cnt.end(), 0) == 0;
+    auto direct_run = [&] {
+        run_mmq(p, geo, ctx, mb, r, x_dev.as<float>(), src_dev.as<int32_t>(), blob, rows, s, true, stride);
+    };
+    if (std::getenv("S20_IDSDIAG")) {   // which step overwrites the routing ids on the device
+        auto check = [&](const char* after) {
+            ck(cudaStreamSynchronize(s), "sync");
+            const std::vector<int32_t> d = download_i(fb.ids, (size_t) rows);
+            int64_t bad = 0;
+            for (size_t i = 0; i < (size_t) rows; ++i) bad += d[i] != ids[i];
+            std::printf("    ids on the device after %s: %lld of %lld differ (fb.ids %p, mb.dm %p..%p, fb.dm %p..%p)\n",
+                        after, (long long) bad, (long long) rows, fb.ids.p, mb.dm.p,
+                        (void*) (mb.dm.as<uint8_t>() + (size_t) rows * N * 4), fb.dm.p,
+                        (void*) (fb.dm.as<uint8_t>() + (size_t) rows * N * 4));
+        };
+        check("the upload");
+        mmq_run();
+        check("an MMQ run");
+        fused_run();
+        check("a fused run");
+        if (all_routed) {
+            direct_run();
+            check("an MMQ run without gathers");
+        }
+    }
+    // ~1 s of both first (the clocks ramp up), then alternating rounds; the medians
+    const bool no_mmq = std::getenv("S20_NOMMQ") != nullptr;   // (debug: the fused runs alone)
+    for (float spent = 0; spent < 1000.0f;) spent += (no_mmq ? 0.0f : once(mmq_run)) + once(fused_run);
+    std::vector<float> tm, tf, td;
+    for (int rep = 0; rep < 8; ++rep) {
+        tm.push_back(no_mmq ? 1.0f : once(mmq_run));
+        tf.push_back(once(fused_run));
+        if (all_routed && !no_mmq) td.push_back(once(direct_run));
+    }
+    if (td.empty()) td.push_back(0.0f);
+    std::sort(tm.begin(), tm.end());
+    std::sort(tf.begin(), tf.end());
+    std::sort(td.begin(), td.end());
+    const float t_mmq = tm[tm.size() / 2], t_f = tf[tf.size() / 2];
+    if (all_routed)
+        std::printf("  (MMQ's products alone, no gathers: %.3f ms - fused %.2fx)\n", td[td.size() / 2],
+                    td[td.size() / 2] / t_f);
+    std::vector<float> tf2;   // back to back
+    for (int rep = 0; rep < 8; ++rep) tf2.push_back(once(fused_run));
+    std::sort(tf2.begin(), tf2.end());
+    std::printf("  (fused back to back: median %.3f ms, min %.3f; alternating min %.3f; MMQ min %.3f)\n", tf2[4],
+                tf2[0], tf[0], tm[0]);
+    const std::vector<float> y_mmq = download(mb.dm, (size_t) rows * N), y_f = download(fb.dm, (size_t) rows * N);
+    const std::vector<int32_t> slot = download_i(fb.slot, (size_t) rows);
+    const Err efm = compare(y_f, [&](size_t i) { return (int64_t) slot[i]; }, y_mmq,
+                            [&](size_t i) { return (int64_t) r.row_of[i]; }, (size_t) rows);
+    std::printf("%s - timing part: %d tokens x top %d over %d experts, one layer: MMQ path %.3f ms, fused %.3f ms "
+                "(%.2fx); fused vs MMQ rel RMS %.3e worst row %.3e\n",
+                p.name, T, K, E, t_mmq, t_f, t_mmq / t_f, efm.rms, efm.worst);
+    {   // the grouping: every pair in its expert's rows (the near-identical blobs here would hide a wrong expert)
+        const std::vector<int32_t> fsrc = download_i(fb.src, (size_t) rows);
+        int64_t bad = 0, bad_src = 0;
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < (size_t) rows; ++i) {
+            const int e = ids[i];
+            bad += slot[i] < r.off[(size_t) e] || slot[i] >= r.off[(size_t) e + 1];
+            bad_src += fsrc[(size_t) slot[i]] != (int32_t) (i / K);
+        }
+        if (bad || bad_src) {
+            std::vector<int32_t> tbl((size_t) 4 * E + 2);
+            ck(cudaMemcpy(tbl.data(), fb.scratch.p, tbl.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost), "tables");
+            int64_t bad_cnt = 0, bad_off = 0, bad_ids = 0;
+            const std::vector<int32_t> d_ids = download_i(fb.ids, (size_t) rows);
+            for (size_t i = 0; i < (size_t) rows; ++i) bad_ids += d_ids[i] != ids[i];
+            std::printf("  the routing ids on the device: %lld of %lld differ (first %d %d %d)\n", (long long) bad_ids,
+                        (long long) rows, d_ids[0], d_ids[1], d_ids[2]);
+            const int32_t smin = *std::min_element(slot.begin(), slot.end()), smax = *std::max_element(slot.begin(), slot.end());
+            std::printf("  slots %d..%d; off[0..3] %d %d %d %d off[E] %d; fill[0..3] %d %d %d %d; ts[0..3] %d %d %d %d "
+                        "ts[E] %d\n", smin, smax, tbl[E], tbl[E + 1], tbl[E + 2], tbl[E + 3], tbl[2 * E], tbl[2 * E + 1],
+                        tbl[2 * E + 2], tbl[2 * E + 3], tbl[2 * E + 4], tbl[3 * E + 1], tbl[3 * E + 2], tbl[3 * E + 3],
+                        tbl[3 * E + 4], tbl[4 * E + 1]);
+            // the group again on these ids, synchronously
+            fused::group(fb.ids.as<int32_t>(), rows, K, E, fb.scratch.p, fb.slot.as<int32_t>(), fb.src.as<int32_t>(), s);
+            ck(cudaStreamSynchronize(s), "sync");
+            std::vector<int32_t> t2((size_t) 4 * E + 2);
+            ck(cudaMemcpy(t2.data(), fb.scratch.p, t2.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost), "tables");
+            std::printf("  group() again, synchronized: cnt[0..3] %d %d %d %d off[E] %d\n", t2[0], t2[1], t2[2], t2[3],
+                        t2[(size_t) 2 * E]);
+            for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) {
+                bad_cnt += tbl[(size_t) e] != r.cnt[(size_t) e];
+                bad_off += tbl[(size_t) E + e] != r.off[(size_t) e];
+            }
+            std::printf("  GROUPING WRONG: %lld pairs outside their expert's rows, %lld src mismatches; tables: %lld counts "
+                        "and %lld offsets differ from the host's (cnt[0..3] %d %d %d %d vs %d %d %d %d)\n",
+                        (long long) bad, (long long) bad_src, (long long) bad_cnt, (long long) bad_off, tbl[0], tbl[1],
+                        tbl[2], tbl[3], r.cnt[0], r.cnt[1], r.cnt[2], r.cnt[3]);
+            throw std::runtime_error(std::string(p.name) + ": the grouping is wrong");
+        }
+    }
+    if (std::getenv("S20_ROWDIAG")) {   // the pairs whose rows differ most: expert, its rows, the row's place
+        const std::vector<int32_t> fsrc = download_i(fb.src, (size_t) rows);
+        std::vector<std::pair<double, size_t>> worst;
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < (size_t) rows; ++i) {
+            const float* a = y_f.data() + (size_t) slot[i] * N;
+            const float* m = y_mmq.data() + (size_t) r.row_of[i] * N;
+            double me = 0, mr = 0;
+            for (int o = 0; o < N; ++o) { me = std::max(me, (double) std::fabs(a[o] - m[o])); mr = std::max(mr, (double) std::fabs(m[o])); }
+            worst.push_back({mr > 0 ? me / mr : me, i});
+        }
+        std::sort(worst.rbegin(), worst.rend());
+        for (int k = 0; k < 12; ++k) {
+            const size_t i = worst[(size_t) k].second;
+            const int e = ids[i];
+            // the expert's rows start at its first fused row: the smallest slot of its pairs
+            int32_t first = INT32_MAX;
+            for (size_t j = 0; j < (size_t) rows; ++j) if (ids[j] == e) first = std::min(first, slot[j]);
+            std::printf("    pair %zu token %zu expert %d (%d rows) fused row %d (+%d in the expert) max rel %.3e\n", i,
+                        i / K, e, r.cnt[(size_t) e], slot[i], slot[i] - first, worst[(size_t) k].first);
+        }
+        (void) fsrc;
+    }
+    // both against the double-precision reference on a sample of 96 pairs
+    {
+        std::vector<size_t> pick;
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < 96; ++i) pick.push_back((i * 2654435761u) % (size_t) rows);
+        std::vector<float> ref(pick.size() * N), ym(pick.size() * N), yf(pick.size() * N);
+        std::vector<uint8_t> hb(geo.bytes);
+        std::vector<float> gu, dn, h(FF);
+        for (size_t j = 0; j < pick.size(); ++j) {
+            const size_t i = pick[j];
+            const int e = ids[i];
+            ck(cudaMemcpy(hb.data(), blob[(size_t) e], geo.bytes, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost), "blob back");
+            dequant(p, geo, hb, gu, dn);
+            const float* xr = x.data() + (i / K) * N;
+            for (int f = 0; f < FF; ++f) {
+                double gt = 0, up = 0;
+                const float *wg = gu.data() + (size_t) f * N, *wu = gu.data() + (size_t) (FF + f) * N;
+                for (int k = 0; k < N; ++k) { gt += (double) wg[k] * xr[k]; up += (double) wu[k] * xr[k]; }
+                h[(size_t) f] = (float) (gt / (1.0 + std::exp(-gt)) * up);
+            }
+            for (int o = 0; o < N; ++o) {
+                double a = 0;
+                const float* wd = dn.data() + (size_t) o * FF;
+                for (int f = 0; f < FF; ++f) a += (double) wd[f] * h[(size_t) f];
+                ref[j * N + o] = (float) a;
+            }
+            std::copy_n(y_mmq.begin() + (ptrdiff_t) ((size_t) r.row_of[i] * N), N, ym.begin() + (ptrdiff_t) (j * N));
+            std::copy_n(y_f.begin() + (ptrdiff_t) ((size_t) slot[i] * N), N, yf.begin() + (ptrdiff_t) (j * N));
+        }
+        auto id = [](size_t j) { return (int64_t) j; };
+        const Err em = compare(ym, id, ref, id, pick.size()), ef = compare(yf, id, ref, id, pick.size());
+        std::printf("  sample of %zu pairs vs FP32 reference: MMQ rel RMS %.3e worst %.3e, fused rel RMS %.3e worst "
+                    "%.3e\n", pick.size(), em.rms, em.worst, ef.rms, ef.worst);
+        if (ef.rms > 1.5 * em.rms || ef.worst > 2.0 * em.worst)
+            throw std::runtime_error(std::string(p.name) + ": the fused path's error is not comparable to MMQ's (timing)");
+    }
+    cudaEventDestroy(a);
+    cudaEventDestroy(b);
+    if (efm.rms > 0.05) throw std::runtime_error(std::string(p.name) + ": the paths disagree at the real shape");
+}
+}  // namespace
+
+int main(int argc, char** argv) {
+    try {
+#ifdef _WIN32
+        _putenv_s("STRATA_PF_FUSED", "1");
+#else
+        setenv("STRATA_PF_FUSED", "1", 1);
+#endif
+        int n = 0;
+        if (cudaGetDeviceCount(&n) != cudaSuccess || n == 0) { std::printf("no CUDA device: skipped\n"); return 77; }
+        if (!fused::available()) { std::printf("the fused kernels need sm_80 or newer: skipped\n"); return 77; }
+        if (!mmq::built()) { std::printf("no MMQ in this build\n"); return 1; }
+        const std::vector<Pair> pairs = {
+            {GGML_TYPE_IQ2_S, GGML_TYPE_Q2_0, "IQ2_S / Q2_0"},       {GGML_TYPE_IQ2_XXS, GGML_TYPE_Q2_0, "IQ2_XXS / Q2_0"},
+            {GGML_TYPE_IQ2_XS, GGML_TYPE_IQ4_NL, "IQ2_XS / IQ4_NL"}, {GGML_TYPE_IQ3_XXS, GGML_TYPE_IQ4_NL, "IQ3_XXS / IQ4_NL"},
+            {GGML_TYPE_IQ3_S, GGML_TYPE_IQ4_NL, "IQ3_S / IQ4_NL"},   {GGML_TYPE_IQ4_XS, GGML_TYPE_Q2_0, "IQ4_XS / Q2_0"}};
+        const char* only = nullptr;   // --only=NAME: the pairs whose name contains NAME
+        for (int i = 1; i < argc; ++i)
+            if (std::strncmp(argv[i], "--only=", 7) == 0) only = argv[i] + 7;
+        bool timing = true, ref = true;   // --no-timing, --no-ref: skip a part
+        std::vector<int> chunks = {2048, 3584, 8192};   // --chunks=A,B: the timing part's chunk sizes
+        for (int i = 1; i < argc; ++i) {
+            if (std::strcmp(argv[i], "--no-timing") == 0) timing = false;
+            if (std::strcmp(argv[i], "--no-ref") == 0) ref = false;
+            if (std::strncmp(argv[i], "--chunks=", 9) == 0) {
+                chunks.clear();
+                for (const char* c = argv[i] + 9; *c;) {
+                    chunks.push_back(std::atoi(c));
+                    while (*c && *c != ',') ++c;
+                    if (*c == ',') ++c;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        cudaStream_t s = nullptr;
+        ck(cudaStreamCreateWithFlags(&s, cudaStreamNonBlocking), "stream");
+        for (const Pair& p : pairs) {
+            if (only && std::string(p.name).find(only) == std::string::npos) continue;
+            if (!fused::native_supported((int) p.gu, (int) p.d))
+                throw std::runtime_error(std::string(p.name) + ": not covered by the native kernels");
+            if (ref) reference_part(p, s);
+        }
+        if (timing) {
+            // the IQ2_XS pack's layers (34 of 48 IQ2_S / Q2_0, 11 IQ2_XXS / Q2_0), the IQ3_S pack's most common, IQ3_XXS's
+            for (const Pair& p : {pairs[0], pairs[1], pairs[4], pairs[3]}) {
+                if (only && std::string(p.name).find(only) == std::string::npos) continue;
+                for (int T : chunks) timing_part(p, T, s);
+            }
+        }
+        ck(cudaStreamDestroy(s), "destroy");
+        std::printf("prefill fused MoE (native formats) parity passed\n");
+        return 0;
+    } catch (const std::exception& e) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "prefill fused MoE (native formats) parity failed: %s\n", e.what());
+        return 1;
+    }
+}

tests/cuda/prefill_fused_moe_test.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,420 @@
+// prefill_fused_moe_test - #136: the fused int8 expert kernels of the prompt path (moe_fused.hpp, STRATA_PF_FUSED=1)
+// on random Strata Q2_0 expert blobs and random routing, against
+//   - a double-precision reference: the dequantized weights times the FP32 activations (gate/up, SwiGLU, down), and
+//   - the MMQ path in prefill.cpp's sequence (gather_strata_q2 into 16-expert groups, q8_1 of the slots' activations,
+//     gate/up, SwiGLU, q8_1 of H, down).
+// Both round the activations and H to int8 per 32 values, differently, so this is not a bitwise test: the fused
+// path's error against the reference has to be comparable to MMQ's own (at most 1.5x its RMS and 2x its worst row).
+// Part 1 (reference): 256 tokens over 64 experts, skewed routing - experts with 0 rows, with one, with several 64-row
+// tiles - an all-zero token, per-expert blobs at unrelated addresses, three launches of different expert ranges.
+// Part 2 (timing): one layer at a real chunk (2048 tokens, 512 experts, top 10) on both paths, with their agreement.
+// Exit 77 without a CUDA device of sm_80 or newer.
+#include "strata/prefill/moe_fused.hpp"
+#include "strata/prefill/moe_mmq.hpp"
+
+#include "ggml.h"
+
+#include <cuda_runtime.h>
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <cmath>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <cstdio>
+#include <cstring>
+#include <memory>
+#include <random>
+#include <stdexcept>
+#include <string>
+#include <thread>
+#include <vector>
+
+namespace {
+namespace mmq = strata::prefill::mmq;
+namespace fused = strata::prefill::fused;
+
+constexpr int N = 2560, FF = 640, K = 10, GROUP = 16, Q2 = 42;   // GGML_TYPE_Q2_0
+constexpr size_t BLOB = 1382400, O_D_CODES = (size_t) 1280 * 640, O_GU_SC = O_D_CODES + (size_t) 2560 * 160,
+                 O_D_SC = O_GU_SC + (size_t) 1280 * 40 * 2;
+
+void ck(cudaError_t e, const char* what) {
+    if (e != cudaSuccess) throw std::runtime_error(std::string(what) + ": " + cudaGetErrorString(e));
+}
+
+struct Dev {
+    void* p = nullptr;
+    explicit Dev(size_t n) { ck(cudaMalloc(&p, n), "cudaMalloc"); }
+    ~Dev() { cudaFree(p); }
+    Dev(const Dev&) = delete;
+    Dev& operator=(const Dev&) = delete;
+    template <typename T> T* as() const { return (T*) p; }
+};
+
+// a Strata Q2_0 blob: random codes, scales in [0.004, 0.03] (a 2-bit expert's range)
+std::vector<uint8_t> make_blob(std::mt19937& rng) {
+    std::vector<uint8_t> b(BLOB);
+    std::uniform_int_distribution<int> byte(0, 255);
+    std::uniform_real_distribution<float> sc(0.004f, 0.03f);
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < O_GU_SC; ++i) b[i] = (uint8_t) byte(rng);
+    for (size_t i = O_GU_SC; i < BLOB; i += 2) {
+        const ggml_fp16_t h = ggml_fp32_to_fp16(sc(rng));
+        std::memcpy(&b[i], &h, 2);
+    }
+    return b;
+}
+
+// the blob's weights as floats: gate/up [1280][2560] (interleaved rows), down [2560][640]
+void dequant(const std::vector<uint8_t>& b, std::vector<float>& gu, std::vector<float>& dn) {
+    auto row = [&](size_t codes, size_t ld, size_t scales, int nb, int r, float* out) {
+        for (int k = 0; k < nb * 64; ++k) {
+            ggml_fp16_t h;
+            std::memcpy(&h, &b[scales + ((size_t) r * nb + k / 64) * 2], 2);
+            const int q = (b[codes + (size_t) r * ld + k / 4] >> (2 * (k % 4))) & 3;
+            out[k] = ggml_fp16_to_fp32(h) * (float) (q - 1);
+        }
+    };
+    gu.resize((size_t) 1280 * N);
+    dn.resize((size_t) N * FF);
+    for (int r = 0; r < 1280; ++r) row(0, 640, O_GU_SC, 40, r, gu.data() + (size_t) r * N);
+    for (int r = 0; r < N; ++r) row(O_D_CODES, 160, O_D_SC, 10, r, dn.data() + (size_t) r * FF);
+}
+
+// activations: N(0, 1) with a few large values (the hidden state has outliers); token `zero` all zero
+std::vector<float> make_x(int T, std::mt19937& rng, int zero) {
+    std::vector<float> x((size_t) T * N);
+    std::normal_distribution<float> nd(0.0f, 1.0f);
+    std::uniform_int_distribution<int> pick(0, 199);
+    for (float& v : x) v = nd(rng) * (pick(rng) == 0 ? 12.0f : 1.0f);
+    if (zero >= 0) std::fill(x.begin() + (size_t) zero * N, x.begin() + (size_t) (zero + 1) * N, 0.0f);
+    return x;
+}
+
+// K distinct experts per token; `hot` > 0 skews the first choices towards the lowest ids
+std::vector<int32_t> make_ids(int T, int E, std::mt19937& rng, int hot, int unused) {
+    std::vector<int32_t> ids((size_t) T * K);
+    std::uniform_int_distribution<int> any(0, E - 1 - unused);
+    for (int t = 0; t < T; ++t)
+        for (int k = 0; k < K; ++k) {
+            int e;
+            bool dup;
+            do {
+                e = (hot > 0 && k < 3 && (int) (rng() % 4) != 0) ? (int) (rng() % (unsigned) hot) : any(rng);
+                dup = false;
+                for (int j = 0; j < k; ++j) dup |= ids[(size_t) t * K + j] == e;
+            } while (dup);
+            ids[(size_t) t * K + k] = e;
+        }
+    return ids;
+}
+
+struct Routing {
+    std::vector<int32_t> cnt, off, src;   // per expert; sorted row -> token (rows in pair order within an expert)
+    std::vector<int32_t> row_of;          // pair -> sorted row
+};
+Routing sort_rows(const std::vector<int32_t>& ids, int E) {
+    Routing r;
+    r.cnt.assign((size_t) E, 0);
+    for (int32_t e : ids) ++r.cnt[(size_t) e];
+    r.off.assign((size_t) E + 1, 0);
+    for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) r.off[(size_t) e + 1] = r.off[(size_t) e] + r.cnt[(size_t) e];
+    std::vector<int32_t> fill(r.off.begin(), r.off.end() - 1);
+    r.src.resize(ids.size());
+    r.row_of.resize(ids.size());
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < ids.size(); ++i) {
+        const int32_t p = fill[(size_t) ids[i]]++;
+        r.row_of[i] = p;
+        r.src[(size_t) p] = (int32_t) (i / K);
+    }
+    return r;
+}
+
+// MMQ, as prefill.cpp runs it: per group of 16 routed experts a gather, gate/up, SwiGLU, q8_1 of H, down.  Returns
+// Dm [rows][N] in sorted-row order.
+struct MmqBufs {
+    Dev xq, gu, h, hq, dm, ident, bounds, grp_gu, grp_d;
+    MmqBufs(int64_t rows, int E)
+        : xq(mmq::q8_bytes(rows, N)), gu((size_t) rows * 1280 * 4), h((size_t) rows * FF * 4),
+          hq(mmq::q8_bytes(rows, FF)),
+          dm((size_t) rows * N * 4), ident((size_t) rows * 4), bounds((size_t) (2 * (E + E / GROUP + 2)) * 4),
+          grp_gu(GROUP * mmq::matrix_bytes(Q2, 1280, N) + 4096), grp_d(GROUP * mmq::matrix_bytes(Q2, N, FF) + 4096) {}
+};
+void run_mmq(mmq::Context& ctx, MmqBufs& b, const Routing& r, const float* x_dev, const int32_t* src_dev,
+             const std::vector<const uint8_t*>& blob, int64_t rows, cudaStream_t s) {
+    const size_t gub = mmq::matrix_bytes(Q2, 1280, N), db = mmq::matrix_bytes(Q2, N, FF);
+    const int E = (int) r.cnt.size();
+    std::vector<int32_t> order;
+    for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) if (r.cnt[(size_t) e] > 0) order.push_back(e);
+    const size_t n = order.size(), ng = (n + GROUP - 1) / GROUP;
+    std::vector<int32_t> bh(n + 1 + ng * (GROUP + 1));
+    for (size_t j = 0; j < n; ++j) bh[j] = r.off[(size_t) order[j]];
+    bh[n] = (int32_t) rows;
+    for (size_t g = 0; g < ng; ++g)
+        for (size_t i = 0; i <= GROUP; ++i)
+            bh[n + 1 + g * (GROUP + 1) + i] = bh[std::min(n, g * GROUP + i)] - bh[g * GROUP];
+    ck(cudaMemcpyAsync(b.bounds.p, bh.data(), bh.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice, s), "bounds");
+    mmq::iota(b.ident.as<int32_t>(), rows, s);
+    mmq::quantize(x_dev, src_dev, b.xq.p, Q2, N, N, rows, s);
+    for (size_t j = 0; j < n; ++j) {
+        const size_t q = j % GROUP;
+        mmq::gather_strata_q2(blob[(size_t) order[j]], b.grp_gu.as<uint8_t>() + q * gub, b.grp_d.as<uint8_t>() + q * db,
+                              s);
+        if (q + 1 < GROUP && j + 1 < n) continue;
+        const size_t j0 = j - q, g = j0 / GROUP;
+        const int ngx = (int) (q + 1);
+        const int64_t r0 = bh[j0], nr = bh[j + 1] - r0;
+        int64_t maxr = 0;
+        for (size_t i = j0; i <= j; ++i) maxr = std::max<int64_t>(maxr, r.cnt[(size_t) order[i]]);
+        ck(cudaMemsetAsync(b.grp_gu.as<uint8_t>() + (size_t) ngx * gub, 0, 4096, s), "tail");
+        ck(cudaMemsetAsync(b.grp_d.as<uint8_t>() + (size_t) ngx * db, 0, 4096, s), "tail");
+        mmq::Product gu;
+        gu.w = b.grp_gu.p; gu.type = Q2; gu.w_rows = 1280; gu.w_cols = N; gu.expert_bytes = gub;
+        gu.n = ngx; gu.xq = b.xq.p; gu.bounds = b.bounds.as<int32_t>() + j0; gu.ids = b.ident.as<int32_t>();
+        gu.total_rows = rows; gu.max_rows = maxr; gu.dst = b.gu.as<float>(); gu.ld_dst = 1280;
+        ctx.run(gu, s);
+        mmq::swiglu(b.gu.as<float>() + r0 * 1280, b.h.as<float>() + r0 * FF, nr, FF, true, s);
+        mmq::quantize(b.h.as<float>() + r0 * FF, nullptr, b.hq.p, Q2, FF, FF, nr, s);
+        mmq::Product dn;
+        dn.w = b.grp_d.p; dn.type = Q2; dn.w_rows = N; dn.w_cols = FF; dn.expert_bytes = db;
+        dn.n = ngx; dn.xq = b.hq.p; dn.bounds = b.bounds.as<int32_t>() + n + 1 + g * (GROUP + 1);
+        dn.ids = b.ident.as<int32_t>(); dn.total_rows = nr; dn.max_rows = maxr; dn.dst = b.dm.as<float>() + r0 * N;
+        dn.ld_dst = N;
+        ctx.run(dn, s);
+    }
+}
+
+// the fused path: quantize, group on the device, then launches over expert ranges `cuts` (e.g. {0, 20, 64})
+struct FusedBufs {
+    Dev xa, ha, dm, scratch, slot, src, ids;
+    FusedBufs(int T, int64_t rows, int E)
+        : xa(fused::act_bytes(T, N)), ha(fused::act_bytes(rows, FF)), dm((size_t) rows * N * 4),
+          scratch(fused::group_bytes(rows, E)), slot((size_t) rows * 4), src((size_t) rows * 4),
+          ids((size_t) rows * 4) {}
+};
+void run_fused(FusedBufs& b, const float* x_dev, int T, int E, const std::vector<int>& cuts,
+               const std::vector<const uint8_t*>& blob, cudaStream_t s) {
+    const int64_t rows = (int64_t) T * K;
+    fused::quantize_act(x_dev, T, N, b.xa.p, s);
+    fused::group(b.ids.as<int32_t>(), rows, K, E, b.scratch.p, b.slot.as<int32_t>(), b.src.as<int32_t>(), s);
+    for (size_t c = 0; c + 1 < cuts.size(); ++c) {
+        for (int e0 = cuts[c]; e0 < cuts[c + 1]; e0 += fused::kMaxBatch) {
+            fused::Batch bt;
+            bt.e0 = e0;
+            bt.e1 = std::min(cuts[c + 1], e0 + fused::kMaxBatch);
+            for (int e = bt.e0; e < bt.e1; ++e) bt.blob[e - bt.e0] = blob[(size_t) e];
+            fused::experts(bt, E, rows, b.scratch.p, b.xa.p, b.src.as<int32_t>(), b.ha.p, b.dm.as<float>(), s);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct Err {
+    double rms = 0, worst = 0;   // RMS error / RMS of the reference; the worst row's max |error| / its max |ref|
+};
+// y_a[row_a(i)] against y_b[row_b(i)] for every pair i (rows of N values)
+template <typename RA, typename RB>
+Err compare(const std::vector<float>& a, RA row_a, const std::vector<float>& b, RB row_b, size_t pairs) {
+    double e2 = 0, r2 = 0;
+    Err out;
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < pairs; ++i) {
+        const float* ya = a.data() + (size_t) row_a(i) * N;
+        const float* yb = b.data() + (size_t) row_b(i) * N;
+        double me = 0, mr = 0;
+        for (int o = 0; o < N; ++o) {
+            if (!std::isfinite(ya[o])) throw std::runtime_error("a non-finite output");
+            const double d = (double) ya[o] - yb[o];
+            e2 += d * d;
+            r2 += (double) yb[o] * yb[o];
+            me = std::max(me, std::fabs(d));
+            mr = std::max(mr, (double) std::fabs(yb[o]));
+        }
+        if (mr > 0) out.worst = std::max(out.worst, me / mr);
+        else if (me > 0) out.worst = 1e30;   // a zero row must stay exactly zero
+    }
+    out.rms = r2 > 0 ? std::sqrt(e2 / r2) : 0;
+    return out;
+}
+
+std::vector<float> download(const Dev& d, size_t n) {
+    std::vector<float> h(n);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(h.data(), d.p, n * 4, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost), "download");
+    return h;
+}
+std::vector<int32_t> download_i(const Dev& d, size_t n) {
+    std::vector<int32_t> h(n);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(h.data(), d.p, n * 4, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost), "download");
+    return h;
+}
+
+// part 1: against the double-precision reference
+void reference_part(cudaStream_t s) {
+    constexpr int T = 256, E = 64, ZERO = 77;
+    std::mt19937 rng(136);
+    std::vector<std::vector<uint8_t>> host((size_t) E);
+    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Dev>> dev;
+    std::vector<const uint8_t*> blob((size_t) E);
+    for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) {
+        host[(size_t) e] = make_blob(rng);
+        dev.push_back(std::make_unique<Dev>(BLOB + 4096 * (size_t) (e % 3)));   // unrelated addresses
+        uint8_t* p = dev.back()->as<uint8_t>() + 256 * (size_t) (e % 3);       // 16-byte aligned, not 512
+        ck(cudaMemcpy(p, host[(size_t) e].data(), BLOB, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "blob");
+        blob[(size_t) e] = p;
+    }
+    const std::vector<float> x = make_x(T, rng, ZERO);
+    const std::vector<int32_t> ids = make_ids(T, E, rng, 2, 4);   // experts 0, 1 hot (several tiles), 60-63 unused
+    const int64_t rows = (int64_t) T * K;
+    const Routing r = sort_rows(ids, E);
+    std::printf("reference part: %d tokens, %d experts, rows per expert: max %d, experts without rows %d\n", T, E,
+                *std::max_element(r.cnt.begin(), r.cnt.end()), (int) std::count(r.cnt.begin(), r.cnt.end(), 0));
+
+    Dev x_dev(x.size() * 4), src_dev((size_t) rows * 4);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(x_dev.p, x.data(), x.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "x");
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(src_dev.p, r.src.data(), r.src.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "src");
+    mmq::Context ctx;
+    MmqBufs mb(rows, E);
+    // the uploads (legacy stream) must land before the non-blocking stream reads them (S20 found the kernels could run
+    // on all-zero routing otherwise - every pair on one expert: fast and wrong)
+    ck(cudaDeviceSynchronize(), "uploads");
+    run_mmq(ctx, mb, r, x_dev.as<float>(), src_dev.as<int32_t>(), blob, rows, s);
+    FusedBufs fb(T, rows, E);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(fb.ids.p, ids.data(), ids.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "ids");
+    ck(cudaMemset(fb.dm.p, 0xff, (size_t) rows * N * 4), "sentinel");   // an unwritten row is NaN
+    ck(cudaDeviceSynchronize(), "uploads");
+    run_fused(fb, x_dev.as<float>(), T, E, {0, 1, 20, E}, blob, s);
+    ck(cudaStreamSynchronize(s), "sync");
+    const std::vector<float> y_mmq = download(mb.dm, (size_t) rows * N), y_f = download(fb.dm, (size_t) rows * N);
+    const std::vector<int32_t> slot = download_i(fb.slot, (size_t) rows), fsrc = download_i(fb.src, (size_t) rows);
+    for (int64_t i = 0; i < rows; ++i)
+        if (fsrc[(size_t) slot[(size_t) i]] != (int32_t) (i / K)) throw std::runtime_error("group: slot/src disagree");
+
+    // the reference, an expert at a time on all cores
+    std::vector<float> ref((size_t) rows * N);
+    std::vector<std::thread> th;
+    const int nth = std::max(1, std::min(16, (int) std::thread::hardware_concurrency()));
+    for (int w = 0; w < nth; ++w)
+        th.emplace_back([&, w] {
+            std::vector<float> gu, dn, h(FF);
+            for (int e = w; e < E; e += nth) {
+                if (r.cnt[(size_t) e] == 0) continue;
+                dequant(host[(size_t) e], gu, dn);
+                for (int64_t i = 0; i < rows; ++i) {
+                    if (ids[(size_t) i] != e) continue;
+                    const float* xr = x.data() + (size_t) (i / K) * N;
+                    for (int f = 0; f < FF; ++f) {
+                        double gt = 0, up = 0;
+                        const float *wg = gu.data() + (size_t) (2 * f) * N, *wu = wg + N;
+                        for (int k = 0; k < N; ++k) { gt += (double) wg[k] * xr[k]; up += (double) wu[k] * xr[k]; }
+                        h[(size_t) f] = (float) (gt / (1.0 + std::exp(-gt)) * up);
+                    }
+                    for (int o = 0; o < N; ++o) {
+                        double a = 0;
+                        const float* wd = dn.data() + (size_t) o * FF;
+                        for (int f = 0; f < FF; ++f) a += (double) wd[f] * h[(size_t) f];
+                        ref[(size_t) i * N + o] = (float) a;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        });
+    for (auto& t : th) t.join();
+
+    auto pair = [](size_t i) { return (int64_t) i; };
+    auto mrow = [&](size_t i) { return (int64_t) r.row_of[i]; };
+    auto frow = [&](size_t i) { return (int64_t) slot[i]; };
+    const Err em = compare(y_mmq, mrow, ref, pair, (size_t) rows);
+    const Err ef = compare(y_f, frow, ref, pair, (size_t) rows);
+    const Err efm = compare(y_f, frow, y_mmq, mrow, (size_t) rows);
+    std::printf("  MMQ   vs FP32 reference: rel RMS %.3e  worst row max rel %.3e\n", em.rms, em.worst);
+    std::printf("  fused vs FP32 reference: rel RMS %.3e  worst row max rel %.3e\n", ef.rms, ef.worst);
+    std::printf("  fused vs MMQ           : rel RMS %.3e  worst row max rel %.3e\n", efm.rms, efm.worst);
+    double zmax = 0;
+    for (int k = 0; k < K; ++k)
+        for (int o = 0; o < N; ++o)
+            zmax = std::max(zmax, (double) std::fabs(y_f[(size_t) slot[(size_t) (ZERO * K + k)] * N + o]));
+    if (zmax != 0) throw std::runtime_error("the all-zero token's outputs are not zero");
+    if (ef.rms > 1.5 * em.rms || ef.worst > 2.0 * em.worst)
+        throw std::runtime_error("the fused path's error is not comparable to MMQ's");
+}
+
+// part 2: one layer at a real chunk, timed
+void timing_part(cudaStream_t s) {
+    constexpr int T = 2048, E = 512;
+    std::mt19937 rng(1360);
+    const int64_t rows = (int64_t) T * K;
+    // 512 distinct blobs (708 MB) - the products read each once per tile, as the engine does
+    Dev blobs((size_t) E * BLOB);
+    {
+        std::vector<uint8_t> b = make_blob(rng);
+        for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) {
+            b[(size_t) e * 7919 % O_GU_SC] ^= (uint8_t) e;   // not all equal
+            ck(cudaMemcpy(blobs.as<uint8_t>() + (size_t) e * BLOB, b.data(), BLOB, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "blob");
+        }
+    }
+    std::vector<const uint8_t*> blob((size_t) E);
+    for (int e = 0; e < E; ++e) blob[(size_t) e] = blobs.as<uint8_t>() + (size_t) e * BLOB;
+    const std::vector<float> x = make_x(T, rng, -1);
+    const std::vector<int32_t> ids = make_ids(T, E, rng, 0, 0);
+    const Routing r = sort_rows(ids, E);
+    Dev x_dev(x.size() * 4), src_dev((size_t) rows * 4);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(x_dev.p, x.data(), x.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "x");
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(src_dev.p, r.src.data(), r.src.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "src");
+    mmq::Context ctx;
+    MmqBufs mb(rows, E);
+    FusedBufs fb(T, rows, E);
+    ck(cudaMemcpy(fb.ids.p, ids.data(), ids.size() * 4, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice), "ids");
+    ck(cudaDeviceSynchronize(), "uploads");   // the legacy-stream uploads before the timed non-blocking stream
+    cudaEvent_t a, b;
+    ck(cudaEventCreate(&a), "event");
+    ck(cudaEventCreate(&b), "event");
+    auto time = [&](auto&& f) {
+        std::vector<float> ms;
+        for (int rep = 0; rep < 6; ++rep) {
+            ck(cudaEventRecord(a, s), "record");
+            f();
+            ck(cudaEventRecord(b, s), "record");
+            ck(cudaEventSynchronize(b), "sync");
+            float t = 0;
+            ck(cudaEventElapsedTime(&t, a, b), "elapsed");
+            if (rep > 0) ms.push_back(t);   // the first is the warm-up
+        }
+        std::sort(ms.begin(), ms.end());
+        return ms[ms.size() / 2];
+    };
+    // the engine's batches: up to 128 experts per launch (the streamed ring decides; 4 launches here)
+    const float t_mmq = time([&] { run_mmq(ctx, mb, r, x_dev.as<float>(), src_dev.as<int32_t>(), blob, rows, s); });
+    const float t_f = time([&] { run_fused(fb, x_dev.as<float>(), T, E, {0, E}, blob, s); });
+    const float t_f1 = time([&] {   // one launch per 16 experts, MMQ's group size
+        std::vector<int> cuts;
+        for (int e = 0; e <= E; e += 16) cuts.push_back(e);
+        run_fused(fb, x_dev.as<float>(), T, E, cuts, blob, s);
+    });
+    const std::vector<float> y_mmq = download(mb.dm, (size_t) rows * N), y_f = download(fb.dm, (size_t) rows * N);
+    const std::vector<int32_t> slot = download_i(fb.slot, (size_t) rows);
+    const Err efm = compare(y_f, [&](size_t i) { return (int64_t) slot[i]; }, y_mmq,
+                            [&](size_t i) { return (int64_t) r.row_of[i]; }, (size_t) rows);
+    std::printf("timing part: %d tokens x top %d over %d experts (%.1f rows per expert), one layer:\n", T, K, E,
+                (double) rows / E);
+    std::printf("  MMQ path (gathers, q8_1, products, SwiGLU, 32 groups): %.3f ms\n", t_mmq);
+    std::printf("  fused path (quantize, group, 4 launches of 128):       %.3f ms  (%.2fx)\n", t_f, t_mmq / t_f);
+    std::printf("  fused path, launches of 16 experts:                    %.3f ms\n", t_f1);
+    std::printf("  fused vs MMQ: rel RMS %.3e  worst row max rel %.3e\n", efm.rms, efm.worst);
+    cudaEventDestroy(a);
+    cudaEventDestroy(b);
+    if (efm.rms > 0.05) throw std::runtime_error("the paths disagree at the real shape");
+}
+}  // namespace
+
+int main(int argc, char** argv) {
+    try {
+        int n = 0;
+        if (cudaGetDeviceCount(&n) != cudaSuccess || n == 0) { std::printf("no CUDA device: skipped\n"); return 77; }
+        if (!fused::available()) { std::printf("the fused kernels need sm_80 or newer: skipped\n"); return 77; }
+        if (!mmq::built()) { std::printf("no MMQ in this build\n"); return 1; }
+        cudaStream_t s = nullptr;
+        ck(cudaStreamCreateWithFlags(&s, cudaStreamNonBlocking), "stream");
+        reference_part(s);
+        if (!(argc > 1 && std::strcmp(argv[1], "--no-timing") == 0)) timing_part(s);
+        ck(cudaStreamDestroy(s), "destroy");
+        std::printf("prefill fused MoE parity passed\n");
+        return 0;
+    } catch (const std::exception& e) {
+        std::fprintf(stderr, "prefill fused MoE parity failed: %s\n", e.what());
+        return 1;
+    }
+}

tools/calibrate.py

@@ -119,10 +119,30 @@ def run(cfg: dict, say=print, start_engine=None) -> dict:
     tok = ST.Tokenizer(toks, (tpath / "merges.txt").read_text(encoding="utf-8").split("\n"),
                        json.loads((tpath / "token_type.json").read_text()))
     ids_list = [chat_ids(tok, p) for p in PROMPTS]
-    args = list(cfg["args"])
-    if isinstance(cfg.get("gpu"), list) and "--layer-split" not in args:   # several cards: measured as it runs
-        args += ["--layer-split", str(cfg.get("layer_split") or "auto")]
-    return measure(args, ids_list, start_engine, say)
+    return measure(engine_args(cfg), ids_list, start_engine, say)
+
+
+def engine_args(cfg: dict) -> list[str]:
+    """The arguments the server starts this config's engine with (serve.server.engine_args), so the tuning measures
+    the engine as it runs.  #447: this used to read any "gpu" list as a layer split and add --layer-split auto, which
+    broke a one-card config with a helper card for the expert tier ("gpu": [0] + --expert-cache-device1: the engine
+    refuses a split that leaves no card without a stage), missed the "0,2" spelling, and ignored split_skip_if_fits."""
+    from serve.server import engine_args as server_args
+    return server_args(cfg)
+
+
+def engine_error(log: str | None, since: int = 0) -> str | None:
+    """#447: the engine's own reason for a failed start - the last line of its log written after byte `since` that is
+    its own ("strata ..." or "ERR ..."), else the last line there; None without a log or a new line."""
+    if not log:
+        return None
+    try:
+        with open(log, "rb") as f:
+            f.seek(since)
+            lines = [x.strip() for x in f.read()[-16384:].decode("utf-8", "replace").splitlines() if x.strip()]
+    except OSError:
+        return None
+    return next((x for x in reversed(lines) if x.startswith(("strata", "ERR"))), lines[-1] if lines else None)
 
 
 def measure(base_args: list[str], ids_list, start_engine, say=print) -> dict:

tools/hip/package_windows.py

@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@
 tools/hip/build_windows.bat runs it after the build.  The zip holds:
 
     strata.exe, strata-device.exe, BUILD.json      (backend "hip", the archs, the ROCm and hipBLASLt versions)
+    amdhip64_7.dll, amd_comgr.dll                 the HIP runtime beside the exes too (#468 #461: before System32)
     rocm/bin/*.dll                                 the ROCm DLLs the two programs load (their import tables, followed
                                                    through the ROCm DLLs, + amd_comgr.dll, which the HIP runtime loads
                                                    by name) and the Microsoft C++ runtime they import
@@ -104,6 +105,12 @@ def main() -> int:
         sys.exit("VCToolsRedistDir is not set: run this from a Visual Studio x64 developer prompt (vcvars64.bat)")
     for d in sorted(crt):
         shutil.copy2(cdir / d, stage / "rocm" / "bin" / d)
+    # #468 #461: the HIP runtime (and the compiler it loads by name) next to the exes as well - Windows searches the
+    # exe's folder before System32, where an AMD driver may install its own amdhip64_7.dll (found before PATH's
+    # rocm/bin); rocBLAS/hipBLASLt stay in rocm/bin, which they resolve their kernel libraries and ../.kpack from
+    for pat in ("amdhip64_*.dll", "amd_comgr*.dll"):
+        for f in (stage / "rocm" / "bin").glob(pat):
+            shutil.copy2(f, stage / f.name)
 
     # the GEMM kernels and the libraries' own device code, for these archs
     lib = stage / "rocm" / "bin" / "rocblas" / "library"

tools/mtp_fetch.py

@@ -31,8 +31,10 @@ import urllib.request
 # repository no longer has it, the current files are read instead, with a message (resolve_repo).
 PINNED_REVISION = "de4b8e4d43b917e7706784d8bb445c9af86a3540"
 REVISION = os.environ.get("STRATA_MTP_REVISION") or PINNED_REVISION
-REPO = "https://huggingface.co/Qwen/Qwen3.8-Flash-Next/resolve/%s/" % REVISION
-PINNED = "https://huggingface.co/Qwen/Qwen3.8-Flash-Next/resolve/%s/" % PINNED_REVISION   # SHA256's revision
+# #495: HF_ENDPOINT (a mirror, e.g. https://hf-mirror.com) serves the same revision; the SHA256 checks below still apply
+HF_ENDPOINT = (os.environ.get("HF_ENDPOINT") or "").strip().rstrip("/") or "https://huggingface.co"
+REPO = HF_ENDPOINT + "/Qwen/Qwen3.8-Flash-Next/resolve/%s/" % REVISION
+PINNED = HF_ENDPOINT + "/Qwen/Qwen3.8-Flash-Next/resolve/%s/" % PINNED_REVISION   # SHA256's revision
 DTYPE_BYTES = {"BF16": 2, "F16": 2, "F32": 4, "F8_E4M3": 1, "I64": 8, "I32": 4}
 BAD = 3                                             # `verify`'s exit code: a tensor is missing or corrupt
 

tools/test_calibrate.py

@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ import sys
 import tempfile
 import unittest
 from pathlib import Path
+from unittest import mock
 
 ROOT = Path(__file__).resolve().parents[1]
 sys.path.insert(0, str(ROOT / "tools"))
@@ -91,6 +92,53 @@ class Calibrate(unittest.TestCase):
         self.assertIsNone(CAL.arg_value(b, "--pool-workers"))
         self.assertEqual(b.count("--spec-min-p"), 1)
 
+    def test_engine_args_are_the_servers(self):
+        # #447: a "gpu" list is a layer split only with two or more cards; "0,2" is one too; split_skip_if_fits counts
+        helper = {"args": BASE + ["--expert-cache-device1", "1800"], "gpu": [0], "env": {"CUDA_VISIBLE_DEVICES": "0,1"}}
+        self.assertEqual(CAL.engine_args(helper), helper["args"])                 # one stage + a helper card: no split
+        self.assertEqual(CAL.engine_args({"args": BASE, "gpu": 1}), BASE)
+        self.assertEqual(CAL.engine_args({"args": BASE, "gpu": [0, 2]}), BASE + ["--layer-split", "auto"])
+        self.assertEqual(CAL.engine_args({"args": BASE, "gpu": "0,2", "layer_split": "18"}),
+                         BASE + ["--layer-split", "18"])
+        self.assertEqual(CAL.engine_args({"args": BASE, "gpu": [0, 1], "split_skip_if_fits": True}),
+                         BASE + ["--layer-split", "auto", "--split-skip-if-fits"])
+        own = BASE + ["--layer-split", ""]                                       # the config's own value wins
+        self.assertEqual(CAL.engine_args({"args": own, "gpu": [0, 1]}), own)
+
+    def test_run_measures_with_the_servers_args(self):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            tok = Path(d)
+            (tok / "vocab.json").write_text(json.dumps({"a": 0, "b": 1}))
+            (tok / "merges.txt").write_text("")
+            (tok / "token_type.json").write_text(json.dumps([1, 1]))
+            seen = []
+            saved = CAL.measure
+            CAL.measure = lambda args, ids_list, start_engine, say=print: seen.append(args) or {}
+            fake = type("ST", (), {"Tokenizer": lambda *a: type("T", (), {"encode": lambda s, t, **k: [0]})()})
+            try:
+                with mock.patch.dict(sys.modules, {"strata_tokenizer": fake}):
+                    CAL.run({"tokenizer": d, "args": list(BASE), "gpu": [0]}, start_engine=lambda a: None)
+            finally:
+                CAL.measure = saved
+        self.assertEqual(seen, [BASE])
+
+    def test_engine_error(self):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            log = Path(d) / "strata-x.log"
+            log.write_text("strata generate: an old error\n", encoding="utf-8")
+            since = log.stat().st_size
+            with open(log, "a", encoding="utf-8") as f:
+                f.write("loading ...\nstrata generate: --expert-cache-remote with a layer split needs a GPU that runs "
+                        "no stage (2 visible, 2 used by the split)\n\n")
+            self.assertEqual(CAL.engine_error(str(log), since), "strata generate: --expert-cache-remote with a layer "
+                             "split needs a GPU that runs no stage (2 visible, 2 used by the split)")
+            with open(log, "a", encoding="utf-8") as f:
+                f.write("Segmentation fault\n")
+            self.assertIn("--expert-cache-remote", CAL.engine_error(str(log), since))   # the engine's own line first
+            self.assertEqual(CAL.engine_error(str(log), log.stat().st_size), None)   # nothing new since
+            self.assertIsNone(CAL.engine_error(None))
+            self.assertIsNone(CAL.engine_error(str(Path(d) / "missing.log")))
+
     def test_worker_candidates(self):
         self.assertEqual(CAL.worker_candidates(6), [6, 4, 3])
         self.assertEqual(CAL.worker_candidates(23), [23, 15, 12])
@@ -152,6 +200,35 @@ class SetupIntegration(unittest.TestCase):
         self.assertEqual(json.loads(cfg_path.read_text())["args"], BASE)
         self.assertIsNone(self.S.saved_calibration({"args": BASE, "model_name": "m"}))
 
+    def test_failed_calibration_says_the_engines_reason(self):
+        # #447: the engine's last error line is printed, and the --calibrate run repeats the failure before it starts
+        import contextlib
+        import io
+        log = Path(self.tmp.name) / "strata-q2_0.log"
+        log.write_text("strata generate: an error of an earlier start\n", encoding="utf-8")
+        cfg_path = Path(self.tmp.name) / "strata-q2_0.json"
+        cfg_path.write_text(json.dumps({"exe": "x", "args": list(BASE), "model_name": "m", "log": str(log)}))
+
+        def boom(*a, **k):
+            with open(log, "a", encoding="utf-8") as f:
+                f.write("strata generate: --expert-cache-remote with a layer split needs a GPU that runs no stage\n")
+            raise RuntimeError(f"the engine exited before it was ready (see {log})")
+        CAL.run = boom
+        out = io.StringIO()
+        with contextlib.redirect_stdout(out):
+            self.assertFalse(self.S.calibrate_config(cfg_path))
+        self.assertIn("the engine said: strata generate: --expert-cache-remote with a layer split", out.getvalue())
+        self.assertNotIn("an earlier start", out.getvalue())
+        out = io.StringIO()
+        with mock.patch.object(self.S, "ROOT", Path(self.tmp.name)), \
+                mock.patch.object(self.S, "data_folder", lambda d: (Path(self.tmp.name) / "data", [])), \
+                mock.patch.object(self.S, "update_installed_engine", lambda *a: None), \
+                mock.patch.object(sys, "argv", ["setup.py", "--calibrate", "--no-start"]), \
+                contextlib.redirect_stdout(out):
+            self.assertEqual(self.S.main(), 0)
+        self.assertIn("this PC is NOT tuned: the tuning failed (the reason is above); the model keeps the default "
+                      "settings", out.getvalue())
+
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":
     unittest.main()

tools/test_setup_amd.py

@@ -117,6 +117,40 @@ class GpuLists(unittest.TestCase):
                 else:
                     setup.os.environ["ROCM_PATH"] = old
 
+    def test_runtime_only_system_rocm_falls_back_to_the_wheels(self):
+        """#446: a system ROCm 7 with hipcc and libhipblas but no HIP development files (no hip-lang CMake package, no
+        hip_runtime.h) is not used for the build: a warning says what is missing and the wheels path follows (here
+        it stops at the two-family check, which only the wheels path makes); with the files it is used as before."""
+        said = []
+        setup.say = lambda msg="": said.append(msg)          # tearDown puts the real one back
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            sysroot = Path(d)
+            for rel, text in (("bin/hipcc", ""), ("lib/libhipblas.so.3", ""),
+                              ("include/rocm-core/rocm_version.h",
+                               "#define ROCM_VERSION_MAJOR 7\n#define ROCM_VERSION_MINOR 14\n")):
+                (sysroot / rel).parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+                (sysroot / rel).write_text(text)
+            with mock.patch.dict(setup.os.environ, {"ROCM_PATH": d}):
+                with self.assertRaises(SystemExit):
+                    setup.rocm_root(["gfx1100", "gfx1201"])
+                self.assertIn(f"the ROCm in {sysroot} has no HIP development files (lib/cmake/hip-lang/hip-lang-"
+                              "config.cmake, include/hip/hip_runtime.h): using AMD's wheels", "\n".join(said))
+                self.assertIn("two GPU families", "\n".join(said))
+                for lib in ("lib64", "lib"):                 # either place CMake looks
+                    with self.subTest(lib=lib):
+                        cfg = sysroot / lib / "cmake/hip-lang/hip-lang-config.cmake"
+                        cfg.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+                        cfg.write_text("")
+                        said.clear()
+                        with self.assertRaises(SystemExit):
+                            setup.rocm_root(["gfx1100", "gfx1201"])
+                        self.assertIn("(include/hip/hip_runtime.h)", "\n".join(said))
+                        (sysroot / "include/hip").mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+                        (sysroot / "include/hip/hip_runtime.h").write_text("")
+                        self.assertEqual(setup.rocm_root(["gfx1100", "gfx1201"]), (sysroot, [str(sysroot / "lib")]))
+                        cfg.unlink()
+                        (sysroot / "include/hip/hip_runtime.h").unlink()
+
     def test_build_for_every_arch(self):
         """build_engine_hip compiles for the set of the chosen cards' archs and records it in BUILD.json."""
         calls = {}
@@ -311,5 +345,32 @@ class WindowsHipVision(unittest.TestCase):
             self.assertEqual(setup.hip_vision("cpu"), "cpu")
 
 
+class HipRuntimeBesideExe(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#468 #461: the bundled HIP runtime (and amd_comgr) goes next to strata.exe, so an AMD driver's System32 copy is
+    not found first; rocBLAS and the rest stay in rocm/bin."""
+
+    def test_copies_only_the_runtime(self):
+        import json
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            eng = Path(d)
+            rb = eng / "rocm" / "bin"
+            rb.mkdir(parents=True)
+            (eng / "BUILD.json").write_text(json.dumps({"backend": "hip", "lib_dirs": ["rocm/bin"]}))
+            for n, data in (("amdhip64_7.dll", b"hip-3686"), ("amd_comgr.dll", b"comgr"), ("rocblas.dll", b"blas")):
+                (rb / n).write_bytes(data)
+            setup.hip_runtime_beside_exe(eng)
+            self.assertEqual((eng / "amdhip64_7.dll").read_bytes(), b"hip-3686")
+            self.assertEqual((eng / "amd_comgr.dll").read_bytes(), b"comgr")
+            self.assertFalse((eng / "rocblas.dll").exists())          # finds its kernels relative to rocm/bin
+            (rb / "amdhip64_7.dll").write_bytes(b"hip-3690-newer")    # a newer zip: replaced on the next start
+            setup.hip_runtime_beside_exe(eng)
+            self.assertEqual((eng / "amdhip64_7.dll").read_bytes(), b"hip-3690-newer")
+
+    def test_no_rocm_bin_is_a_no_op(self):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            setup.hip_runtime_beside_exe(Path(d))                   # no BUILD.json (a CUDA or Linux engine)
+            self.assertEqual(list(Path(d).iterdir()), [])
+
+
 if __name__ == "__main__":
     unittest.main()

tools/test_setup_choices.py

@@ -92,6 +92,64 @@ class GgufDirShards(unittest.TestCase):
         self.assertEqual(self.shards(["a-00001-of-00002.gguf", "b-00001-of-00002.gguf"]), want)   # ambiguous
 
 
+class GgufDirUnsupported(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#444: --gguf-dir with GGUFs Strata cannot run (Unsloth's UD-IQ3_XXS, UD-Q2_K_XL) says so, names the files it
+    runs (ISTA-DASLab's GSQ-RCO, the Coder's, Unsloth's UD-Q4_K_XL) and the --family/--model of the usable ones."""
+    UD = ["Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-UD-IQ3_XXS-%05d-of-00003.gguf" % i for i in range(1, 4)] + \
+         ["Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-UD-Q2_K_XL-%05d-of-00003.gguf" % i for i in range(1, 4)]
+
+    def problem(self, names, family="qwen", model="IQ3_XXS"):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            for n in names:
+                (Path(d) / n).write_bytes(b"")
+            fam = setup.FAMILIES[family]
+            first = setup.gguf_dir_shards(Path(d), fam, model)[0]
+            p = setup.gguf_dir_problem(Path(d), first, fam, model)
+            return p and (p[0].replace(d, "<D>"), p[1])
+
+    def test_quant_names(self):
+        for name, want in (("Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-UD-IQ3_XXS-00001-of-00003.gguf", "UD-IQ3_XXS"),
+                           ("Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-UD-Q2_K_XL-00001-of-00003.gguf", "UD-Q2_K_XL"),
+                           ("model-Q4_K_M.gguf", "Q4_K_M"),
+                           ("Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-GSQ-RCO-IQ3_XXS-00001-of-00002.gguf", None),
+                           ("Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-UD-Q4_K_XL-00001-of-00004.gguf", None),
+                           ("my-IQ3_XXS-00001-of-00003.gguf", None), ("mmproj-F16.gguf", None),
+                           ("a-00001-of-00002.gguf", None)):
+            self.assertEqual(setup.gguf_unsupported(name), want, name)
+
+    def test_an_unsloth_ud_file_is_not_taken_for_a_gsq_rco_size(self):
+        msg, hint = self.problem(self.UD)                   # IQ3_XXS: UD-IQ3_XXS has the size in its name
+        self.assertEqual(msg, "Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-UD-IQ3_XXS-00001-of-00003.gguf is UD-IQ3_XXS, a GGUF Strata "
+                              "cannot run")
+        self.assertIn("ISTA-DASLab's GSQ-RCO files", hint)
+        self.assertIn("Unsloth's UD-Q4_K_XL only", hint)
+
+    def test_a_folder_without_the_choice_names_what_is_there(self):
+        gsq = ["Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-GSQ-RCO-IQ1_M-%05d-of-00002.gguf" % i for i in (1, 2)]
+        msg, hint = self.problem(self.UD + gsq, "unsloth", "UD-Q4_K_XL")
+        self.assertEqual(msg, "<D> has no Qwen3.8-Flash-Next (Unsloth) UD-Q4_K_XL file")
+        self.assertIn("Not usable here: Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-UD-IQ3_XXS-00001-of-00003.gguf, "
+                      "Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-UD-Q2_K_XL-00001-of-00003.gguf", hint)
+        self.assertIn("Usable here: --family coder --model IQ1_M", hint)
+
+    def test_usable_folders_are_left_alone(self):
+        good = ["Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-GSQ-RCO-IQ3_XXS-%05d-of-00002.gguf" % i for i in (1, 2)]
+        self.assertIsNone(self.problem(good + self.UD))
+        self.assertIsNone(self.problem(["my-IQ3_XXS-%05d-of-00003.gguf" % i for i in (1, 2, 3)]))
+        self.assertIsNone(self.problem([]))                 # nothing there: check_shards' "missing", as before
+
+    def test_the_size_of_another_family(self):
+        from test_setup_golden import PROFILES, install
+        ram, found = PROFILES["64GB-1x32GB"]
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            code, out, _, _ = install(ram, found, ["--gguf-dir", d, "--family", "unsloth", "--model", "IQ3_XXS"])
+        self.assertEqual(code, 1)
+        self.assertIn("has no IQ3_XXS model file", out)
+        self.assertIn("choose one of: UD-Q4_K_XL (or IQ3_XXS: --family qwen --model IQ3_XXS, --family swift --model "
+                      "IQ3_XXS)", out)
+        self.assertIn("Strata runs ISTA-DASLab's GSQ-RCO files", out)
+
+
 class ExperimentalSm60(unittest.TestCase):
     """#295: Pascal (6.x) and Volta (7.0) only with STRATA_EXPERIMENTAL_SM60=1, built with -DSTRATA_EXPERIMENTAL_SM60=ON
     and a CUDA 12.x toolkit; nothing changes without the variable."""
@@ -209,5 +267,68 @@ class HipVision(unittest.TestCase):
         self.assertNotIn("vision_src", meta)
 
 
+class VramReserve(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#493: --vram-reserve-mib N - VRAM the engine leaves free for other programs - goes into the config only when
+    given (the default config is tools/test_setup_golden.py's, unchanged), at setup and on a start."""
+
+    def setUp(self):
+        from test_setup_golden import PROFILES
+        self.ram, self.found = PROFILES["64GB-1x32GB"]
+
+    def install(self, *extra):
+        from test_setup_golden import install
+        return install(self.ram, self.found, ["--family", "qwen", "--model", "Q2_0", "--no-start", *extra])
+
+    def test_given_at_setup(self):
+        code, out, cfg, _ = self.install("--vram-reserve-mib", "2048")
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        a = cfg["args"]
+        self.assertEqual(a.count("--vram-reserve-mib"), 1)
+        self.assertEqual(a[a.index("--vram-reserve-mib") + 1], "2048")
+        self.assertIn("VRAM kept free for other programs: 2048 MiB", out)
+        code, out, cfg, _ = self.install()
+        self.assertNotIn("--vram-reserve-mib", cfg["args"])          # not given: the engine's default, as before
+
+    def test_with_images_one_value(self):
+        code, out, cfg, _ = self.install("--vision", "cpu", "--vram-reserve-mib", "1500")
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        a = cfg["args"]
+        self.assertEqual(a.count("--vram-reserve-mib"), 1)
+        self.assertEqual(a[a.index("--vram-reserve-mib") + 1], "1500")
+
+    def test_a_negative_value_is_refused(self):
+        with contextlib.redirect_stderr(io.StringIO()) as err:
+            code, out, cfg, _ = self.install("--vram-reserve-mib", "-1")
+        self.assertEqual(code, 2)
+        self.assertIn("--vram-reserve-mib takes a number of MiB", err.getvalue())
+
+    def test_kept_from_an_earlier_install(self):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            p = Path(d) / "strata-q2_0.json"
+            p.write_text(json.dumps({"args": ["--max-context", "8192", "--vram-reserve-mib", "2048"]}))
+            self.assertEqual(setup.choices_from_config(p)["vram_reserve_mib"], 2048)
+            p.write_text(json.dumps({"args": ["--vision", "--vram-reserve-mib", "700"], "vision": {"gpu": True}}))
+            self.assertIsNone(setup.choices_from_config(p)["vram_reserve_mib"])   # the images' own reserve
+            p.write_text(json.dumps({"args": ["--max-context", "8192"]}))
+            self.assertIsNone(setup.choices_from_config(p)["vram_reserve_mib"])
+
+    def test_given_on_a_start(self):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            exe = Path(d) / "strata.exe"
+            exe.write_bytes(b"")
+            p = Path(d) / "strata-q2_0.json"
+            p.write_text(json.dumps({"exe": str(exe), "args": ["--kv", "int8"], "gpu": 0, "gpus_asked": True}))
+            call = mock.Mock(return_value=0)
+            with mock.patch.object(setup, "gpus", lambda: self.found), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "is_wsl", lambda: False), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "ensure_engine_for", lambda cards, path, cfg, yes: cfg), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup.subprocess, "call", call):
+                for n in ("2048", "1024"):
+                    _, out = quiet(setup.start, p, None, None, False, True, None, {"vram_reserve_mib": int(n)})
+                    self.assertEqual(json.loads(p.read_text())["args"], ["--kv", "int8", "--vram-reserve-mib", n])
+        self.assertIn("1024 MiB of VRAM kept free", out)
+        self.assertTrue(call.called)
+
+
 if __name__ == "__main__":
     unittest.main()

tools/test_setup_draft_vocab.py

@@ -49,5 +49,29 @@ class Refresh(unittest.TestCase):
             self.assertEqual(hashlib.sha256((rt / "draft_vocab.bin").read_bytes()).hexdigest(), want)
 
 
+class SmallCardNote(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#474: a card under 14 GB is told about a smaller draft subset - a note only, and not when one was chosen."""
+
+    def test_note_on_a_small_card_only(self):
+        note = setup.draft_vocab_note(12.0, None)
+        self.assertTrue(note)
+        self.assertIn("--draft-vocab en", " ".join(note))
+        self.assertIn("the draft head does not fit", " ".join(note))
+        for vram, chosen in ((16.0, None), (24.0, None), (12.0, "en"), (12.0, "cyrillic"), (12.0, "cjk"), (0.0, None)):
+            self.assertEqual(setup.draft_vocab_note(vram, chosen), [], (vram, chosen))
+
+    def test_sizes_follow_the_shipped_subsets(self):
+        # the MiB the note gives scale with the subsets' token counts (4 bytes per token id in data/)
+        sizes = {}
+        for choice, name in setup.DRAFT_VOCABS.items():
+            p = ROOT / "data" / name
+            if not p.exists():
+                self.skipTest(f"data/{name} is not in this checkout")
+            sizes[choice] = p.stat().st_size // 4
+        for choice in ("en", "cyrillic"):
+            want = setup.DRAFT_VOCAB_MIB["cjk"] * sizes[choice] / sizes["cjk"]
+            self.assertAlmostEqual(setup.DRAFT_VOCAB_MIB[choice], want, delta=3)
+
+
 if __name__ == "__main__":
     unittest.main()

tools/test_setup_pins.py

@@ -98,6 +98,48 @@ class HuggingFacePins(unittest.TestCase):
         finally:
             mtp_fetch.REPO = pinned
 
+    def test_hf_endpoint(self):
+        # #495: HF_ENDPOINT (a mirror) serves the same pinned revision; a trailing slash and blanks are dropped
+        repo = "ISTA-DASLab/Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-GSQ-RCO-GGUF"
+        with mock.patch.dict(setup.os.environ, {}, clear=False):
+            setup.os.environ.pop("HF_ENDPOINT", None)
+            self.assertEqual(setup.hf(repo), f"https://huggingface.co/{repo}/resolve/{setup.HF_REVISIONS[repo]}/")
+            for value in ("https://hf-mirror.com", "https://hf-mirror.com/", " https://hf-mirror.com/ "):
+                setup.os.environ["HF_ENDPOINT"] = value
+                url = setup.hf(repo)
+                self.assertEqual(url, f"https://hf-mirror.com/{repo}/resolve/{setup.HF_REVISIONS[repo]}/")
+                self.assertRegex(url, SHA)
+                self.assertEqual(setup.hf_unpinned(url + "x.gguf"), f"https://hf-mirror.com/{repo}/resolve/main/x.gguf")
+            setup.os.environ["HF_ENDPOINT"] = ""
+            self.assertEqual(setup.hf_endpoint(), "https://huggingface.co")
+
+    def test_mtp_fetch_honours_hf_endpoint(self):
+        import importlib
+        import mtp_fetch
+        try:
+            with mock.patch.dict(mtp_fetch.os.environ, {"HF_ENDPOINT": "https://hf-mirror.com/"}):
+                importlib.reload(mtp_fetch)
+                self.assertTrue(mtp_fetch.REPO.startswith("https://hf-mirror.com/Qwen/Qwen3.8-Flash-Next/resolve/"))
+                self.assertRegex(mtp_fetch.REPO, SHA)
+                self.assertTrue(mtp_fetch.pinned())                 # the tensors' SHA-256 checks still apply
+        finally:
+            importlib.reload(mtp_fetch)
+        self.assertTrue(mtp_fetch.REPO.startswith("https://huggingface.co/"))
+
+    def test_step5_names_the_folder(self):
+        # #495: where setup expects the model files, and how to give it files downloaded by hand
+        from test_setup_golden import PROFILES, install
+        ram, found = PROFILES["96GB-1x16GB"]
+        with mock.patch.dict(setup.os.environ, {"HF_ENDPOINT": "https://hf-mirror.com"}):
+            code, out, cfg, _ = install(ram, found, ["--family", "qwen", "--model", "IQ3_XXS", "--no-start"])
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0)
+        text = out.replace("\\", "/")
+        self.assertRegex(text, r"The model files go in .*/models/IQ3_XXS")
+        self.assertIn("put them here with their original names (Qwen3.8-Flash-Next-GSQ-RCO-IQ3_XXS-00001-of-00002.gguf",
+                      text)
+        self.assertIn("--gguf-dir", text)
+        self.assertIn("Downloading from https://hf-mirror.com (HF_ENDPOINT)", text)
+
 
 class Engine(unittest.TestCase):
     def setUp(self):

tools/test_setup_risk.py

@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import contextlib
 import io
 import json
+import os
 import sys
 import tempfile
 import unittest
@@ -135,6 +136,53 @@ class Context(unittest.TestCase):
         self.assertTrue(started.called)
 
 
+class BrokenEarlierConfig(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#459: a new copy of Strata set up like an earlier install skips an earlier config that does not parse (an
+    empty strata-*.json crashed START-HERE with JSONDecodeError) and goes on as a fresh install; configs are written
+    whole (a temporary file moved over the old one)."""
+    RAM64, GPU32 = PROFILES["64GB-1x32GB"]
+
+    def setup_with(self, files):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            for i, (name, text) in enumerate(files):                  # in order, oldest first
+                (Path(d) / name).write_text(text, encoding="utf-8")
+                os.utime(Path(d) / name, (1_700_000_000 + i, 1_700_000_000 + i))
+            return install(self.RAM64, self.GPU32, [], extra=[
+                mock.patch.object(setup, "other_installs", lambda settings: [Path(d)]),
+                mock.patch.object(setup, "start", mock.Mock(return_value=0))])
+
+    def test_an_empty_config_is_skipped(self):
+        for text, why in (("", "the file is empty"), ("{\"args\": [", "not valid JSON"), ("[1]", "not a JSON object")):
+            with self.subTest(text=text):
+                code, out, cfg, _ = self.setup_with([("strata-iq3_s.json", text)])
+                self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+                self.assertIn("skipped the earlier config ", out)
+                self.assertIn(f"strata-iq3_s.json ({why}): setting this copy up without it", out)
+                self.assertNotIn("Found your earlier install", out)
+                self.assertIsNotNone(cfg)                                # the fresh install's config
+
+    def test_the_newest_readable_config_is_used(self):
+        good = json.dumps({"args": ["--max-context", "262144", "--kv", "int8"], "port": 8080})
+        code, out, cfg, _ = self.setup_with([("strata-iq3_s.json", good), ("strata-q2_0.json", "")])
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        self.assertIn("strata-q2_0.json (the file is empty)", out)
+        self.assertIn("Found your earlier install", out)
+        self.assertIn("(iq3_s)", out)
+        self.assertEqual(arg(cfg, "--max-context"), "262144")
+
+    def test_write_config_leaves_no_partial_file(self):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            p = Path(d) / "strata-iq3_s.json"
+            p.write_text("old", encoding="utf-8")
+            setup.write_config(p, {"args": ["--kv", "int8"]})
+            self.assertEqual(p.read_text(encoding="utf-8"), json.dumps({"args": ["--kv", "int8"]}, indent=1))
+            self.assertEqual([f.name for f in Path(d).iterdir()], ["strata-iq3_s.json"])   # no .tmp left
+            with mock.patch.object(Path, "write_text", side_effect=OSError(28, "No space left on device")):
+                with self.assertRaises(OSError):
+                    setup.write_config(p, {"args": []})
+            self.assertEqual(json.loads(p.read_text(encoding="utf-8")), {"args": ["--kv", "int8"]})   # kept whole
+
+
 class LowRamGpus(unittest.TestCase):
     """S2/S3 (#364 #384): one GPU recommended in the low-RAM mode, all of them when asked for."""
 
@@ -277,6 +325,42 @@ class SmallCard(unittest.TestCase):
         self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], 0)                                   # one card: as before
 
 
+class SplitShortCard(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#448: a second card too small to lend a split's prompt chunk: the first card alone recommended, the pair kept
+    when named."""
+    FOUND = [card(0, "NVIDIA RTX PRO 4500 Blackwell", 31.8, "120"), card(1, "NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3080", 10.0, "86")]
+
+    def test_rule(self):
+        self.assertEqual([g["index"] for g in setup.split_short(self.FOUND)], [1])
+        self.assertEqual(setup.split_short(PROFILES["32GB-2x24GB"][1]), [])
+        self.assertEqual(setup.split_short(PROFILES["47GB-2x16GB"][1]), [])
+        eights = [card(i, "NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3070", 8.0, "86") for i in range(2)]
+        self.assertEqual(setup.split_short(eights), [])                   # neither card alone reads more
+
+    def test_yes_takes_the_first_card(self):
+        code, out, cfg, _ = install(127.8, self.FOUND, ["--family", "qwen", "--model", "Q2_0", "--no-start"])
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], 0)
+        self.assertIn("too small to lend a split its prompt buffers", out)
+
+    def test_named_pair_is_kept(self):
+        code, out, cfg, _ = install(127.8, self.FOUND, ["--family", "qwen", "--model", "Q2_0", "--no-start",
+                                                        "--gpus", "0,1"])
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], [0, 1])
+
+    def test_offer_together_defaults_to_one(self):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            p = Path(d) / "strata-q2_0.json"
+            with mock.patch.object(setup, "gpus", lambda: self.FOUND), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "engine_runs_on", lambda g: True):
+                code, out, asked = run(setup.offer_together, p, {"args": ["--mmap-experts"]}, True)
+            cfg = json.loads(p.read_text())
+        self.assertIsNone(code, out)
+        self.assertNotIn("gpu", cfg)
+        self.assertIn("#448", out)
+
+
 class RamFloor(unittest.TestCase):
     """S7: less RAM than the smallest model needs: a stop with --yes alone, a risk with --model."""
     FOUND = [card(0, "NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3060", 8.0, "86")]

tools/test_setup_unsloth.py

@@ -319,6 +319,117 @@ class Main(unittest.TestCase):
         self.assertNotIn("--mmap-experts", cfg["args"])
         self.assertFalse(any("--experts-bin" in r for r in self.runs))
 
+    def test_split_when_the_ram_holds_it(self):
+        # #498: 165 GiB and --gpus 0,1: the split without the RAM budget (the engine refuses the pair)
+        code, out, cfg = self.main(["--context", "8192", "--gpus", "0,1"], n_gpus=2, ram=165.0)
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], [0, 1])
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["layer_split"], "auto")
+        for flag in ("--resident-budget-gib", "--mmap-experts", "--resident-experts"):
+            self.assertNotIn(flag, cfg["args"])
+        self.assertIn("as you chose (--gpus): no RAM budget", out)
+        self.assertIn("OS file cache", out)
+        self.assertNotIn("RAM budget: ", out)
+
+    def test_split_refused_without_the_ram(self):
+        need = setup.unsloth_split_need_gb()
+        self.assertAlmostEqual(need, setup.MODELS[M]["download_gb"] + setup.UNSLOTH_RAM_LEFT_GB)
+        code, out, cfg = self.main(["--context", "8192", "--gpus", "0,1"], n_gpus=2, ram=127.8)
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        self.assertIn("runs on one GPU here", out)
+        self.assertNotIn("layer_split", cfg)
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["args"][cfg["args"].index("--resident-budget-gib") + 1], "71")   # all of them
+
+    def test_an_explicit_budget_keeps_one_gpu(self):
+        code, out, cfg = self.main(["--context", "8192", "--gpus", "0,1", "--resident-budget-gib", "60"], n_gpus=2,
+                                   ram=165.0)
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        self.assertIn("--resident-budget-gib has no layer split", out)
+        self.assertNotIn("layer_split", cfg)
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["args"][cfg["args"].index("--resident-budget-gib") + 1], "60")
+
+    def test_yes_alone_keeps_one_gpu(self):
+        code, out, cfg = self.main(["--context", "8192"], n_gpus=2, ram=165.0)
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        self.assertIn("runs on one GPU: using", out)
+        self.assertIn("--gpus 0,1 shares it", out)
+        self.assertNotIn("layer_split", cfg)
+        self.assertIn("--resident-budget-gib", cfg["args"])
+
+
+class LayerSplit(unittest.TestCase):
+    """#498: UD-Q4_K_XL across GPUs - asked at setup (one GPU by default), and a start with --gpus no longer keeps
+    the RAM budget the engine refuses with a split (it exited with code 2)."""
+
+    def setUp(self):
+        sys.path.insert(0, str(ROOT / "tools"))
+        from test_setup_golden import card
+        self.found = [card(i, "NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3090", 24.0, "86") for i in range(2)]
+
+    def test_asked_one_gpu_by_default(self):
+        from test_setup_golden import install
+        argv = ["--family", "unsloth", "--model", M, "--context", "32768", "--no-start"]
+        code, out, cfg, asked = install(165.0, self.found, argv, answers={"which GPUs?": "1", "Which GPUs?": "1"})
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        self.assertTrue(any(f"{M}: which GPUs?" in q and "[1]" in q for q in asked), asked)
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], 0)
+        self.assertIn("--resident-budget-gib", cfg["args"])
+        code, out, cfg, asked = install(165.0, self.found, argv, answers={f"{M}: which GPUs?": "2"})
+        self.assertEqual(code, 0, out)
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], [0, 1])
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["layer_split"], "auto")
+        self.assertNotIn("--resident-budget-gib", cfg["args"])
+
+    def start(self, ram, gpu=(0, 1), offered=None):
+        from test_setup_risk import run
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            exe = Path(d) / "strata.exe"
+            exe.write_bytes(b"")
+            p = Path(d) / "strata-unsloth-ud-q4_k_xl.json"
+            before = {"exe": str(exe), "args": ["--pack", "p", "--resident-budget-gib", "40", "--kv", "int8"],
+                      "gpu": 0, "gpus_asked": offered is None}
+            p.write_text(json.dumps(before))
+            call = mock.Mock(return_value=0)
+            with mock.patch.object(setup, "gpus", lambda: self.found), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "ram_gb", lambda: ram), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "engine_runs_on", lambda g: True), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "ensure_engine_for", lambda cards, path, cfg, yes: cfg), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "is_wsl", lambda: False), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup.subprocess, "call", call):
+                code, out, asked = run(setup.start, p, None, list(gpu) if gpu else None, False, offered is None,
+                                       stdin=offered)
+            return code, out, json.loads(p.read_text()), call.called
+
+    def test_start_with_gpus_drops_the_budget(self):
+        code, out, cfg, started = self.start(165.0)
+        self.assertIsNone(code, out)
+        self.assertTrue(started)
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], [0, 1])
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["args"], ["--pack", "p", "--kv", "int8"])
+        self.assertIn("no RAM budget", out)
+
+    def test_start_with_gpus_refused_without_the_ram(self):
+        code, out, cfg, started = self.start(63.7)
+        self.assertEqual(code, 1)
+        self.assertFalse(started)
+        self.assertIn("cannot share its RAM budget across GPUs", out)
+        self.assertIn("--gpu N", out)
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], 0)                                # nothing saved
+        self.assertIn("--resident-budget-gib", cfg["args"])
+
+    def test_offered_at_a_start(self):
+        code, out, cfg, _ = self.start(165.0, gpu=None, offered="")    # Enter: one GPU (the default here)
+        self.assertIsNone(code, out)
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], 0)
+        self.assertIn("--resident-budget-gib", cfg["args"])
+        self.assertIn("about twice as fast in #498", out)
+        code, out, cfg, _ = self.start(165.0, gpu=None, offered="y")
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], [0, 1])
+        self.assertNotIn("--resident-budget-gib", cfg["args"])
+        code, out, cfg, _ = self.start(63.7, gpu=None, offered="y")    # not offered: the RAM does not hold it
+        self.assertEqual(cfg["gpu"], 0)
+        self.assertNotIn("Use both", out)
+
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":
     unittest.main()

tools/test_setup_update.py

@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+"""Tests for `setup.py --update` (#475, UPDATE.bat / update.sh): it refreshes what a start would - the Python packages,
+the engine, each model's config and draft subset - and never starts the model.  Every outside effect is mocked: no
+GPU, no downloads, nothing written outside a temp folder.
+
+    python -m unittest tools.test_setup_update
+"""
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import contextlib
+import io
+import json
+import sys
+import tempfile
+import unittest
+from pathlib import Path
+from unittest import mock
+
+ROOT = Path(__file__).resolve().parents[1]
+sys.path.insert(0, str(ROOT))
+import setup  # noqa: E402
+
+
+class Update(unittest.TestCase):
+    def config(self, d: Path, **extra) -> Path:
+        rt = d / "mtp" / "rt"
+        rt.mkdir(parents=True)
+        p = d / "strata-iq3_s.json"
+        p.write_text(json.dumps({"model_name": "Qwen IQ3_S", "exe": str(d / "engine" / setup.EXE),
+                                 "args": ["--native", "x", "--mtp", str(rt)], **extra}), encoding="utf-8")
+        return p
+
+    def run_update(self, have, argv=()):
+        a = mock.Mock(**{"build": False, "prebuilt": "URL", **dict(argv)})
+        out = io.StringIO()
+        with mock.patch.object(setup, "pip_install") as pip, \
+                mock.patch.object(setup, "update_installed_engine") as eng, \
+                mock.patch.object(setup, "refresh_draft_vocab") as dv, \
+                mock.patch.object(setup, "start") as start, \
+                mock.patch("subprocess.call") as call, \
+                contextlib.redirect_stdout(out):
+            rc = setup.update_install(have, a)
+        return rc, pip, eng, dv, start, call, out.getvalue()
+
+    def test_refreshes_without_starting(self):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            p = self.config(Path(d), draft_vocab="en")
+            rc, pip, eng, dv, start, call, out = self.run_update([p])
+        self.assertEqual(rc, 0)
+        pip.assert_called_once()
+        eng.assert_called_once_with("URL")
+        dv.assert_called_once()
+        self.assertEqual(dv.call_args[0][1], "en")                 # the model's own subset is kept
+        start.assert_not_called()
+        call.assert_not_called()
+        self.assertIn("Strata is updated", out)
+
+    def test_build_keeps_the_compiled_engine_path(self):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            p = self.config(Path(d))
+            rc, pip, eng, dv, *_ = self.run_update([p], {"build": True})
+        self.assertEqual(rc, 0)
+        eng.assert_not_called()
+        self.assertEqual(dv.call_args[0][1], "cjk")
+
+    def test_nothing_installed(self):
+        rc, pip, eng, dv, start, call, out = self.run_update([])
+        self.assertEqual(rc, 0)
+        for m in (pip, eng, dv, start, call):
+            m.assert_not_called()
+        self.assertIn("START-HERE.bat", out)
+
+    def test_main_update_never_starts(self):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as d:
+            p = self.config(Path(d))
+            with mock.patch.object(sys, "argv", ["setup.py", "--update"]), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "data_folder", return_value=(Path(d), [])), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "installed_configs", return_value=[p]), \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "update_install", return_value=0) as up, \
+                    mock.patch.object(setup, "start") as start, \
+                    contextlib.redirect_stdout(io.StringIO()):
+                self.assertEqual(setup.main(), 0)
+        up.assert_called_once()
+        start.assert_not_called()
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    unittest.main()

update.sh

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+#!/bin/sh
+# Update Strata without starting the model (#475): the newest code (git pull, when this folder is a git clone), then
+# what ./setup.sh does before a start - the engine (a new ready-made one when this version needs it, or compiled
+# again when its source changed), the Python packages, each installed model's settings and draft subset. The model
+# files are not touched. Start the model later with ./setup.sh. Options are passed on to setup.py.
+cd "$(dirname "$0")" || exit 1
+# all of it in a function, read before it runs: the git pull below can change this very file
+main() {
+  if [ -e .git ]; then
+    if ! command -v git >/dev/null 2>&1; then
+      echo "This folder is a git clone, but git is not installed: install it (sudo apt install git) or run"
+      echo "\"git pull\" here yourself, then run ./update.sh again."
+      exit 1
+    fi
+    echo "Getting the newest Strata (git pull) ..."
+    if ! git pull --ff-only; then
+      echo
+      echo "git pull did not succeed (the reason is above): nothing was updated. Files you changed here can stop it:"
+      echo "\"git status\" lists them."
+      exit 1
+    fi
+  else
+    echo "This copy of Strata was not made with git, so it cannot fetch new files itself. Download the newest one:"
+    echo "  https://github.com/Niko1221/Strata/archive/refs/heads/main.zip"
+    echo "unzip it anywhere and run ./setup.sh (or ./update.sh) in it: it finds the model files in Strata-data and"
+    echo "sets itself up the same way - nothing big is downloaded again."
+    echo "Checking this copy's engine and settings meanwhile ..."
+  fi
+  exec sh ./setup.sh --update "$@"
+}
+main "$@"